Sunday, May 22, 2011
Mechanical Refrigeration System
In refrigrasi mechanical vapor compression systems are a series of four main components: evaporator, compressor, condenser, and refrigerant flow control devices. Each component has a trait and its own function differently, but in an integrated and operate together will be able to move the thermal energy.
The impact of operating a refrigeration system on an object is, if picked up some of the energy contained in it, the temperature of the object will decrease. Conversely, because the refrigeration system operation is then a number of displaced thermal energy to the environment, the environment can become warmer.
The following is a brief description of the main components of a mechanical refrigeration system:
1. Condenser (condenser - CD)
Condenser is the component where the refrigerant phase change process occurs, the vapor phase into liquid phase. From the process of condensation (condensation) that occur in it that was then this component gets its name. The process of condensation will take place when the refrigerant to release the heat it contains.
Heat is released and discharged into the environment. In order for heat to escape into the environment, then the condensation temperature (TKD) should be higher than the ambient temperature (Tling). Because the refrigerant is a substance that is very volatile, so for him to be made of high pressure condensed. Thus, the condenser is the part where the high-pressure refrigerant (PKD = high pressure - HP).
2. Counterfeit expansion (expansion devices - Exd)
This tool serves as a gate that regulates how much liquid refrigerant is allowed to flow from the condenser to the evaporator. Therefore these tools are often also called refrigerant flow controller. In various textbooks of thermodynamics, processes occurring in these devices is usually called a throttling process.
The amount of refrigerant flow rate is one factor that determines the amount of refrigeration capacity. For a small refrigeration system, the refrigerant flow rate required is also small. Instead the unit or a large refrigeration system will have large refrigerant flow rate as well. There are several types of expansion devices. Below is assigned to some of them.
a. Capillary tube (capillary tube - CT).
Form of copper pipe with holes smaller than about 1 mm in diameter, with height adjusted with keperluannya up to several meters. At various refrigeration units that use these pipes are usually strung to protect them from damage and compact placement.
Hole narrow channel and capillary tube length is an obstacle to the flow of refrigerant through it; barriers that limit the amount of flow that's it. This capillary tube produces a constant flow.
b. Hand expansion valve (hand / manual expansion valve - HEV).
It is a form of flow regulator valve or faucet used to, which is operated to adjust the opening manually.
c. Thermostatic expansion valve (thermostatic expansion valve - TEV).
In this device there are parts that can work thermostatic, which has a temperature sensor attached to the output of the evaporator. Temperature changes that occur at the output of the evaporator is a major indicator of small refrigeration load. Temperature variation was used to set the aperture TeV, so that the flow rate through it also be controlled.
d. Float valve (float valve - FV).
Expansion devices of this type is usually coupled with the evaporator type of 'puddle' (flooded evaporator, wet evaporator). Height (level) of fluid in the reservoir (reservoir) to drive the evaporator liquid that floats into the regulator valve opening.
3. Evaporator (evaporator - EV)
Evaporator is the component where the liquid refrigerant that goes into it will evaporate. The process of vaporization (evaporation), it occurs because the liquid refrigerant absorbs heat, ie refrigeration system which is a burden. There are two types of evaporators are:
a. Direct expansion evaporators (direct / dry expansion type - DX).
In this evaporator there is a section, namely at the output, which is designed always awake 'dry', meaning in part that the berfasa liquid refrigerant evaporates before it has been sucked out into the compressor inlet.
b. Evaporator inundation (flooded / wet expansion type).
In this type of evaporator entire inner surface of the evaporator is always flooded, or touching, with the refrigerant is a liquid. There is a reservoir (reservoir, low pressure receiver), where the liquid refrigerant collected, and from the top of the reservoir the refrigerant vapor formed in the evaporator is sucked into the compressor.
4. Compressor (compressor - CP)
The impact of operating a refrigeration system on an object is, if picked up some of the energy contained in it, the temperature of the object will decrease. Conversely, because the refrigeration system operation is then a number of displaced thermal energy to the environment, the environment can become warmer.
The following is a brief description of the main components of a mechanical refrigeration system:
1. Condenser (condenser - CD)
Condenser is the component where the refrigerant phase change process occurs, the vapor phase into liquid phase. From the process of condensation (condensation) that occur in it that was then this component gets its name. The process of condensation will take place when the refrigerant to release the heat it contains.
Heat is released and discharged into the environment. In order for heat to escape into the environment, then the condensation temperature (TKD) should be higher than the ambient temperature (Tling). Because the refrigerant is a substance that is very volatile, so for him to be made of high pressure condensed. Thus, the condenser is the part where the high-pressure refrigerant (PKD = high pressure - HP).
2. Counterfeit expansion (expansion devices - Exd)
This tool serves as a gate that regulates how much liquid refrigerant is allowed to flow from the condenser to the evaporator. Therefore these tools are often also called refrigerant flow controller. In various textbooks of thermodynamics, processes occurring in these devices is usually called a throttling process.
The amount of refrigerant flow rate is one factor that determines the amount of refrigeration capacity. For a small refrigeration system, the refrigerant flow rate required is also small. Instead the unit or a large refrigeration system will have large refrigerant flow rate as well. There are several types of expansion devices. Below is assigned to some of them.
a. Capillary tube (capillary tube - CT).
Form of copper pipe with holes smaller than about 1 mm in diameter, with height adjusted with keperluannya up to several meters. At various refrigeration units that use these pipes are usually strung to protect them from damage and compact placement.
Hole narrow channel and capillary tube length is an obstacle to the flow of refrigerant through it; barriers that limit the amount of flow that's it. This capillary tube produces a constant flow.
b. Hand expansion valve (hand / manual expansion valve - HEV).
It is a form of flow regulator valve or faucet used to, which is operated to adjust the opening manually.
c. Thermostatic expansion valve (thermostatic expansion valve - TEV).
In this device there are parts that can work thermostatic, which has a temperature sensor attached to the output of the evaporator. Temperature changes that occur at the output of the evaporator is a major indicator of small refrigeration load. Temperature variation was used to set the aperture TeV, so that the flow rate through it also be controlled.
d. Float valve (float valve - FV).
Expansion devices of this type is usually coupled with the evaporator type of 'puddle' (flooded evaporator, wet evaporator). Height (level) of fluid in the reservoir (reservoir) to drive the evaporator liquid that floats into the regulator valve opening.
3. Evaporator (evaporator - EV)
Evaporator is the component where the liquid refrigerant that goes into it will evaporate. The process of vaporization (evaporation), it occurs because the liquid refrigerant absorbs heat, ie refrigeration system which is a burden. There are two types of evaporators are:
a. Direct expansion evaporators (direct / dry expansion type - DX).
In this evaporator there is a section, namely at the output, which is designed always awake 'dry', meaning in part that the berfasa liquid refrigerant evaporates before it has been sucked out into the compressor inlet.
b. Evaporator inundation (flooded / wet expansion type).
In this type of evaporator entire inner surface of the evaporator is always flooded, or touching, with the refrigerant is a liquid. There is a reservoir (reservoir, low pressure receiver), where the liquid refrigerant collected, and from the top of the reservoir the refrigerant vapor formed in the evaporator is sucked into the compressor.
4. Compressor (compressor - CP)
The compressor is a component which is the heart of the refrigeration system. Compressors work sucking the refrigerant vapor from the evaporator and pushed by means of compression to flow into the condenser.
Because the refrigerant compressor drain device expansion while restricting the flow, then in between these two components were stirred pressure difference, namely: the condenser refrigerant pressure is high (high pressure - HP), while in the evaporator refrigerant pressure is low (low pressure - LP).
Because the refrigerant compressor drain device expansion while restricting the flow, then in between these two components were stirred pressure difference, namely: the condenser refrigerant pressure is high (high pressure - HP), while in the evaporator refrigerant pressure is low (low pressure - LP).
Mechanical Refrigeration System
PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) - An Introduction
PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) was first introduced in 1969 by Richard E. Morley who was the founder of Modicon Corporation. According to the National Electrical Manufacturing Association (NEMA) PLC is defined sebagasi a digital electronic device with a programmable memory to store instructions that perform specific functions such as logic, sequence, timing, counting, and arithmetic to control an industrial machine or process in accordance with the desired industry.
PLC is capable of doing a continuous process based on input variables and provide the programming decisions at will so that the value of output under control.
PLC is a "special computer" for applications in industry, to monitor the process, and to replace the hard wiring controls and has its own programming language. But the PLC is not the same because the PLC will be a personal computer designed for installation and maintenance by a technician and an electrician in the industry who do not have to have a high electronics skills and provide flexibility based on the instruction execution control logic.
That's why the PLC is increasingly well developed in terms of number of inputs and outputs, the amount of available memory, speed, communication between the PLC and how or programming techniques. Almost all kinds of production processes in industry can be automated using a PLC.
The speed and accuracy of operation can be increased so much better using this control system. The advantage of PLC is its ability to change and replicate the process at the same operation with the communication and information-gathering vital information.
Operations on the PLC consists of four essential parts:
1. observation value of inputs
2. run program
3. provides output value
4. control
From an excess of PLC also has shortcomings, among others, which often highlighted is that to program a PLC takes someone who is skilled and fully understands what is needed by the plant and understand about the security or safety that must be met.
Meanwhile, a trained person like that is quite rare and the programming must be made directly to the place where the servers are connected to the PLC, while it is not unusual location of the computer playing it in dangerous places. Therefore we need a device capable of observing, edit and run programs remotely.
PLC is capable of doing a continuous process based on input variables and provide the programming decisions at will so that the value of output under control.
PLC is a "special computer" for applications in industry, to monitor the process, and to replace the hard wiring controls and has its own programming language. But the PLC is not the same because the PLC will be a personal computer designed for installation and maintenance by a technician and an electrician in the industry who do not have to have a high electronics skills and provide flexibility based on the instruction execution control logic.
That's why the PLC is increasingly well developed in terms of number of inputs and outputs, the amount of available memory, speed, communication between the PLC and how or programming techniques. Almost all kinds of production processes in industry can be automated using a PLC.
The speed and accuracy of operation can be increased so much better using this control system. The advantage of PLC is its ability to change and replicate the process at the same operation with the communication and information-gathering vital information.
Operations on the PLC consists of four essential parts:
1. observation value of inputs
2. run program
3. provides output value
4. control
From an excess of PLC also has shortcomings, among others, which often highlighted is that to program a PLC takes someone who is skilled and fully understands what is needed by the plant and understand about the security or safety that must be met.
Meanwhile, a trained person like that is quite rare and the programming must be made directly to the place where the servers are connected to the PLC, while it is not unusual location of the computer playing it in dangerous places. Therefore we need a device capable of observing, edit and run programs remotely.
PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) - An Introduction
Temperature data acquisition using microcontroller
Abstract
This paper discusses the design of the temperature data acquisition system that uses a component-konponen basic form of a temperature sensor, microcontroller and LCD as the viewer facility. Temperature data acquisition system into the one thing that is very important in industrial activity, because it is a small part of a process control.
With regard to the importance of the system, then the design temperature data acquisition system capable of monitoring the temperature of a plant. Data to be measured is a temperature so that the physical quantities to be processed and displayed in the form of electrical systems used LM35 temperature sensor that is able to convert these quantities with the increase of 10mV / º C.
To be able to design the system was first carried out the process to change the temperature into an analog voltage using a temperature sensor LM35. After going through the process boosted by the signal conditioning, analog voltage is converted into digital data using the ADC 0804.
Digital data acquired and processed by the microcontroller AT89S51 and displayed, so that got a plant with information about the temperature unit ° C on an LCD. From the temperature data acquisition system design showed that this system has the ability to measure the temperature from 25 º C to 100 º C with an average error of 0.2125 appointment temperature ° C.
Keywords: Acquisition of temperature data, LM35 temperature sensor, microcontroller AT89S51
I. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Instrumentation systems that form the data acquisition has been widely used in industrial activities, as part of the process control. Measurement of physical quantities is one step in the acquisition of data.
Temperature is one of the physical quantities are often used in a control system is good only for a monitoring system alone or to further control the process.
In connection with this, then we make a temperature sensor that can be controlled by a microcontroller. By displaying a measurement result digitally, monitoring of the process can be conducted more easily.
1.2.1 Objectives
Designing a data acquisition system for temperature and then displayed on the LCD using a Microcontroller AT89S51.
1.3 Limitation Problem
In making this task the authors limited the problem as follows:
1. Range data acquisition is 25 º C to 100 º C.
2. Measurement data is displayed on an LCD as the monitoring equipment without performing process control.
3. ADC configuration set free running.
II. BASIC THEORY
2.1.1 Temperature Sensor LM 35
To detect the temperature used an LM 35 temperature sensor that can be directly calibrated in ° C, the LM 35 is functioned as the basic temperature sensors. Vout from the LM 35 is associated with ADC (Analog To Digital Converter). In room temperature (25 ° C) transducer is capable of removing the voltage 250mV and 1.5 V at a temperature of 150 ° C with an increase of 10mV / ° C.
2.2 Operational Amplifiers (Operational Amplifiers)
Operational amplifiers are integrated circuits (IC) which has 5 basic terminal. Two terminals for power supply, 2 the other is used for the input signal in the form of reverse input (-) and no reverse input (+) and 1 terminal for output.
2.2.1 No Reverse Amplifier (Non-inverting Amplifier)
Not reverse the amplifier is an amplifier where output voltage or the Vo have the same polarity or input voltage Vi. I currents flowing into the Ri as input impedance op - amp is very large so that no current flows on both the input terminals. Voltage at Ri equal to Vi because of differences in the two terminal input voltage approaches 0 V.
i = (2.5)
Voltage at Rf can be expressed as
VRF = I Rf = (2.6)
The output voltage Vo is obtained by adding the voltage at which Ri Vi to the voltage at the Rf of VRF.
Vo = Vi + Vi (2.7)
2.2.2 Differential Amplifier
Differential amplifier is an amplifier where output voltage or the Vo is the result of the difference between the two pieces of input voltage at the inverting terminal and non-invertingnya.
2.3 The series of Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)
ADC in this design is used to convert the input analog output temperature sensor that has been amplified into 8-bit digital data. Type ADC ADC 0804 is used in working mode free running. To create a working mode into free running ADC 0804, it must be known how the sequence of values on and change the value on.
Working mode free running ADC is obtained if and connected to ground in order to always get a logic 0 so that the ADC will always be active and ready to provide data. Pin and rolled into one because of changes in the same logic on logic changes, thus providing the logic to be done automatically by the output.
2.4 Microcontroller AT89S51
AT89S51 is an 8 bit microcontroller is made of CMOS, which is to consume low power and high ability. This microcontroller has a 4Kbyte In-System Programmable Flash Memory, RAM is 128 bytes, 32 input / output, watchdog timer, two data registers pointers, two 16-bit timers and counters, five interrupt vectors, a full-duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator and clock circuit.
AT89S51 made with non-volatile memory technology with high density by Atmel. Microcontroller is suitable to the instruction set and pinout industry standard 80C51.
On-chip flash memory allows the program to re-programmed with the usual nonvolatile memory programmer.
Description:
Vcc: Supply Voltage
GND: Ground or earth
RST: Reset input. Condition logic '1 'during the engine cycle when the oscillator work and will reset the microcontroller in question.
Function - function Port:
Port 0: 8 bit parallel port is open drain in both directions. When used to access the external memory, this port will memultipleks memory address with the data.
Port 1: an 8-bit parallel port, two-way that can be used for various purposes.
Port 2: an 8-bit wide parallel port is bidirectional. These ports make deliveries byte address when done accessing external memory.
P3.0: Shared serial input
P3.1: saluaran serial output
P3.2: External Interrupt 0
P3.3: External Interrupt 1
P3.4: Input external timer / counter 0
P3.5: Input external timer / counter 1
P3.6: Signal punctuation ekstrenal data memory.
P3.7: Signal sign write external data memory.
III. DESIGN SYSTEM
3.1 Hardware Design
3.1.1 Temperature Sensor (LM35)
LM35 temperature sensor serves to change the temperature of physical quantities in the form of a magnitude electrical voltage. This sensor has a parameter that each increase of 1 º C increase by 10mV of output voltage with a maximum limit of the sensor output is 1.5 V at a temperature of 150 ° C.
In the design we set the adc output reaches full scale when the temperature of 100 ° C, so that when the temperature is 100 ° C. The transducer output voltage (10mV / ° C x 100 ° C) = 1V.
From direct current measurements at room temperature, LM35 output is 0.3V (300mV). This voltage is processed by using a signal conditioning circuit to match the ADC input stage.
3.1.2 Signal conditioning
Signal conditioner works to strengthen the LM35 temperature sensor output voltage to be able to be processed on the next equipment in this case by the ADC 0804.
Desirable that the temperature measurement can be performed in the range of 25 ° C - 100 ° C, whereas at room temperature LM35 has issued a voltage of 0.3 V, so to be able to arrange for the ADC input at 0V at room temperature, added a differential amplifier.
Differential amplifier output boosted again with the non-inverting amplifier circuit. With Vin = 1V at 100 ° C and the desired Vout at 5V (VX) are used to determine the value of resistance to non-inverting amplifier as follows:
If Ri = 1K then, Rf = 4K 50K potentiometer is used in applications for Rf.
3.1.3 Analog to Digital Converter (ADC 0804)
Adc circuit design to be used mode free running. This mode was chosen because of adc conversion time is much faster on the level of temperature change of the plant, so that every time the temperature changes, adc always been completed to convert the data so that data is valid for sampled.
For ADC 0804 with the number of bits by 8 bits and Vref = 5V then the resolution (ΔV) = 5 x 2-8 = 19.53 mV.
Adc analog voltage input from the output at full scale signal conditioning in the amount of VX can be calculated as follows:
thus when the input voltage adc adc output would be worth 4.9804 FFH.
3.1.4 Microcontroller (AT89S51)
8 bit digital data from the ADC is taken by mikokontroller through Port 2 (P2.0-P2.7 are connected to DB0-DB7). While the input data for the LCD viewer is removed through Port 1 (P1.0-P1.7 are connected to D0-D7). To control the foot RS and E on the LCD microcontroller use P3.6 and P3.7 foot
The process of data acquisition and data processing can be seen in figure 7. Data taken from P2 calibrated beforehand, after the calibrated data is then converted into ASCII code 0-100 so displayed on the LCD, if not changed then the numbers displayed are 0-255.
IV. TESTING AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Testing of each block
4.1.1 Testing LM35
LM35 temperature sensor is tested by providing a 5V supply and provide indirect heating, while the output voltage directly observed with a voltmeter. From the test data obtained as follows.
Table 2. The test results LM35 sensor
The output voltage temperature
35 ° C 00:35
40 ° C 00:40
45 ° C 00:45
50 ° C 12:51
55 ° C 00:55
60 ° C 0.65
65 ° C 0.71
70 ° C 0.76
From the test results are known voltage sensor output increased by 50mV for every 5 ° C or 10mV / ° C, the sensor is working properly.
4.1.2 Testing the signal conditioning circuit
Signal conditioning circuit testing is done by providing the voltage change at the end of the amplifier input (non-inverting amplifier) and then measure the output to then calculated the level of reinforcement stress.
Table 3. The test result signal conditioner
Av = Vout Vin (Vout / Vin)
0.1 V 0.5 V 5
0.2 V 1V 5
0.3 V 1.5 V 5
0.4 V 2V 5
0.5 V 2.5 V 5
0.6 V 3V 5
0.7 V 2.5 V 5
From the data table is known that the level of strengthening the signal conditioning circuit voltage is 5 times, then the circuit has to work properly.
4.1.3 Testing ADC 0804
Testing is done by giving voltage to the ADC input and record the output of digital data generated through an 8-bit LED display.
Table 4. ADC test results.
Digital data input voltage
0.6 v 23 H
1.2 41 v H
1.8 62 v H
2.6 v H 8D
3.4 v B7 H
4 v DF H
4.2 v EF H
FF v 4.9 H
ADC data test results indicate that these components can work well.
4.1.4 Software Testing
Software testing program involved testing of the temperature data acquisition and calibration of data acquisition of temperature on the LCD display. The process of testing done by looking at the digital data visually displayed on the LED indicator is the data acquired and comparing the results of the temperature display on the LCD.
Table 5. Results of testing temperature display
Digital temperature displays temperature data calculated
25 H 35 ° C 35.294 ° C
43 H 44 ° C 44.117 ° C
63 H 53 ° C 53.823 ° C
8D H 66 ° C 66.470 ° C
B7 H 78 ° C 78.823 ° C
DF H 90 ° C 90.588 ° C
EF H 95 ° C 95.294 ° C
FF H 100 ° C 100 ° C
From the table note that the temperature displayed on the LCD with the temperature of the calculation there is a difference in terms of accuracy, where the temperature is displayed on the LCD is a rounded value without displaying the value behind the comma, while the temperature is calculated as the temperature standard that must be displayed. Removal of the coma is intended to facilitate the process of making the program, but with the consequences of error rates due to the removal of the displayed temperature. Software has to calibrate the digital data and displays the temperature value of a plant, then the software has to work properly.
4.2 Testing the overall system
Testing the overall system is done by placing the sensor LM35 and thermometers in the temperature of the same plant and then compares the temperature is displayed on the LCD appointment to appointment of temperature on the thermometer for 30 minutes.
Table 6. Results of testing system
Display temperature
LCD temperature display thermometer Error
30 ° C 29.7 ° C 0.3 ° C
32 ° C 32 ° C 0 ° C
34 ° C 34 ° C 0 ° C
37 ° C 37.5 ° C 0.5 ° C
40 ° C 40 ° C 0 ° C
45 ° C 45.6 ° C 0.6 ° C
46 ° C 46 ° C 0 ° C
47 ° C 46.7 ° C 0.3 ° C
error 1.7 ° C
The results showed that the temperature data acquisition system has an average error of 0.2125 ° C, this value is obtained by summing all the error value of each test divided by the number of tests (8 times).
V. CLOSING
5.1.1 Conclusion
From the design and manufacture of temperature acquisition system device can be concluded that - as follows:
1. ADC Test results indicate that for input of 4.9 V digital data has reached FFH, then the designation will result in errors when the temperature where the input voltage 4.9 V displays the temperature has reached 100 ° C.
2. Error average temperature on the appointment of the temperature data acquisition system is 0.2125 ° C.
3. LM35 has a sensor output voltage with an increase of 50 mV for every 5 ° C or 10 mV / ° C, the sensor has a fairly linear increase.
5.2 Suggestions
1. At the output end signal conditioning circuit should be added clipper circuit which serves to limit the ADC input for a maximum of 5V.
2. To simplify the zero setting of the differential amplifier circuit output LM35 should be strengthened so that the first reference voltage reduction is not too small.
3. Reference voltage source deduction should use a zener diode to obtain a stable voltage.
4. To make more precise temperature data view, the calibration program can be made better temperature data.
This paper discusses the design of the temperature data acquisition system that uses a component-konponen basic form of a temperature sensor, microcontroller and LCD as the viewer facility. Temperature data acquisition system into the one thing that is very important in industrial activity, because it is a small part of a process control.
With regard to the importance of the system, then the design temperature data acquisition system capable of monitoring the temperature of a plant. Data to be measured is a temperature so that the physical quantities to be processed and displayed in the form of electrical systems used LM35 temperature sensor that is able to convert these quantities with the increase of 10mV / º C.
To be able to design the system was first carried out the process to change the temperature into an analog voltage using a temperature sensor LM35. After going through the process boosted by the signal conditioning, analog voltage is converted into digital data using the ADC 0804.
Digital data acquired and processed by the microcontroller AT89S51 and displayed, so that got a plant with information about the temperature unit ° C on an LCD. From the temperature data acquisition system design showed that this system has the ability to measure the temperature from 25 º C to 100 º C with an average error of 0.2125 appointment temperature ° C.
Keywords: Acquisition of temperature data, LM35 temperature sensor, microcontroller AT89S51
I. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Instrumentation systems that form the data acquisition has been widely used in industrial activities, as part of the process control. Measurement of physical quantities is one step in the acquisition of data.
Temperature is one of the physical quantities are often used in a control system is good only for a monitoring system alone or to further control the process.
In connection with this, then we make a temperature sensor that can be controlled by a microcontroller. By displaying a measurement result digitally, monitoring of the process can be conducted more easily.
1.2.1 Objectives
Designing a data acquisition system for temperature and then displayed on the LCD using a Microcontroller AT89S51.
1.3 Limitation Problem
In making this task the authors limited the problem as follows:
1. Range data acquisition is 25 º C to 100 º C.
2. Measurement data is displayed on an LCD as the monitoring equipment without performing process control.
3. ADC configuration set free running.
II. BASIC THEORY
2.1.1 Temperature Sensor LM 35
To detect the temperature used an LM 35 temperature sensor that can be directly calibrated in ° C, the LM 35 is functioned as the basic temperature sensors. Vout from the LM 35 is associated with ADC (Analog To Digital Converter). In room temperature (25 ° C) transducer is capable of removing the voltage 250mV and 1.5 V at a temperature of 150 ° C with an increase of 10mV / ° C.
2.2 Operational Amplifiers (Operational Amplifiers)
Operational amplifiers are integrated circuits (IC) which has 5 basic terminal. Two terminals for power supply, 2 the other is used for the input signal in the form of reverse input (-) and no reverse input (+) and 1 terminal for output.
2.2.1 No Reverse Amplifier (Non-inverting Amplifier)
Not reverse the amplifier is an amplifier where output voltage or the Vo have the same polarity or input voltage Vi. I currents flowing into the Ri as input impedance op - amp is very large so that no current flows on both the input terminals. Voltage at Ri equal to Vi because of differences in the two terminal input voltage approaches 0 V.
i = (2.5)
Voltage at Rf can be expressed as
VRF = I Rf = (2.6)
The output voltage Vo is obtained by adding the voltage at which Ri Vi to the voltage at the Rf of VRF.
Vo = Vi + Vi (2.7)
2.2.2 Differential Amplifier
Differential amplifier is an amplifier where output voltage or the Vo is the result of the difference between the two pieces of input voltage at the inverting terminal and non-invertingnya.
2.3 The series of Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)
ADC in this design is used to convert the input analog output temperature sensor that has been amplified into 8-bit digital data. Type ADC ADC 0804 is used in working mode free running. To create a working mode into free running ADC 0804, it must be known how the sequence of values on and change the value on.
Working mode free running ADC is obtained if and connected to ground in order to always get a logic 0 so that the ADC will always be active and ready to provide data. Pin and rolled into one because of changes in the same logic on logic changes, thus providing the logic to be done automatically by the output.
2.4 Microcontroller AT89S51
AT89S51 is an 8 bit microcontroller is made of CMOS, which is to consume low power and high ability. This microcontroller has a 4Kbyte In-System Programmable Flash Memory, RAM is 128 bytes, 32 input / output, watchdog timer, two data registers pointers, two 16-bit timers and counters, five interrupt vectors, a full-duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator and clock circuit.
AT89S51 made with non-volatile memory technology with high density by Atmel. Microcontroller is suitable to the instruction set and pinout industry standard 80C51.
On-chip flash memory allows the program to re-programmed with the usual nonvolatile memory programmer.
Description:
Vcc: Supply Voltage
GND: Ground or earth
RST: Reset input. Condition logic '1 'during the engine cycle when the oscillator work and will reset the microcontroller in question.
Function - function Port:
Port 0: 8 bit parallel port is open drain in both directions. When used to access the external memory, this port will memultipleks memory address with the data.
Port 1: an 8-bit parallel port, two-way that can be used for various purposes.
Port 2: an 8-bit wide parallel port is bidirectional. These ports make deliveries byte address when done accessing external memory.
P3.0: Shared serial input
P3.1: saluaran serial output
P3.2: External Interrupt 0
P3.3: External Interrupt 1
P3.4: Input external timer / counter 0
P3.5: Input external timer / counter 1
P3.6: Signal punctuation ekstrenal data memory.
P3.7: Signal sign write external data memory.
III. DESIGN SYSTEM
3.1 Hardware Design
3.1.1 Temperature Sensor (LM35)
LM35 temperature sensor serves to change the temperature of physical quantities in the form of a magnitude electrical voltage. This sensor has a parameter that each increase of 1 º C increase by 10mV of output voltage with a maximum limit of the sensor output is 1.5 V at a temperature of 150 ° C.
In the design we set the adc output reaches full scale when the temperature of 100 ° C, so that when the temperature is 100 ° C. The transducer output voltage (10mV / ° C x 100 ° C) = 1V.
From direct current measurements at room temperature, LM35 output is 0.3V (300mV). This voltage is processed by using a signal conditioning circuit to match the ADC input stage.
3.1.2 Signal conditioning
Signal conditioner works to strengthen the LM35 temperature sensor output voltage to be able to be processed on the next equipment in this case by the ADC 0804.
Desirable that the temperature measurement can be performed in the range of 25 ° C - 100 ° C, whereas at room temperature LM35 has issued a voltage of 0.3 V, so to be able to arrange for the ADC input at 0V at room temperature, added a differential amplifier.
Differential amplifier output boosted again with the non-inverting amplifier circuit. With Vin = 1V at 100 ° C and the desired Vout at 5V (VX) are used to determine the value of resistance to non-inverting amplifier as follows:
If Ri = 1K then, Rf = 4K 50K potentiometer is used in applications for Rf.
3.1.3 Analog to Digital Converter (ADC 0804)
Adc circuit design to be used mode free running. This mode was chosen because of adc conversion time is much faster on the level of temperature change of the plant, so that every time the temperature changes, adc always been completed to convert the data so that data is valid for sampled.
For ADC 0804 with the number of bits by 8 bits and Vref = 5V then the resolution (ΔV) = 5 x 2-8 = 19.53 mV.
Adc analog voltage input from the output at full scale signal conditioning in the amount of VX can be calculated as follows:
thus when the input voltage adc adc output would be worth 4.9804 FFH.
3.1.4 Microcontroller (AT89S51)
8 bit digital data from the ADC is taken by mikokontroller through Port 2 (P2.0-P2.7 are connected to DB0-DB7). While the input data for the LCD viewer is removed through Port 1 (P1.0-P1.7 are connected to D0-D7). To control the foot RS and E on the LCD microcontroller use P3.6 and P3.7 foot
The process of data acquisition and data processing can be seen in figure 7. Data taken from P2 calibrated beforehand, after the calibrated data is then converted into ASCII code 0-100 so displayed on the LCD, if not changed then the numbers displayed are 0-255.
IV. TESTING AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Testing of each block
4.1.1 Testing LM35
LM35 temperature sensor is tested by providing a 5V supply and provide indirect heating, while the output voltage directly observed with a voltmeter. From the test data obtained as follows.
Table 2. The test results LM35 sensor
The output voltage temperature
35 ° C 00:35
40 ° C 00:40
45 ° C 00:45
50 ° C 12:51
55 ° C 00:55
60 ° C 0.65
65 ° C 0.71
70 ° C 0.76
From the test results are known voltage sensor output increased by 50mV for every 5 ° C or 10mV / ° C, the sensor is working properly.
4.1.2 Testing the signal conditioning circuit
Signal conditioning circuit testing is done by providing the voltage change at the end of the amplifier input (non-inverting amplifier) and then measure the output to then calculated the level of reinforcement stress.
Table 3. The test result signal conditioner
Av = Vout Vin (Vout / Vin)
0.1 V 0.5 V 5
0.2 V 1V 5
0.3 V 1.5 V 5
0.4 V 2V 5
0.5 V 2.5 V 5
0.6 V 3V 5
0.7 V 2.5 V 5
From the data table is known that the level of strengthening the signal conditioning circuit voltage is 5 times, then the circuit has to work properly.
4.1.3 Testing ADC 0804
Testing is done by giving voltage to the ADC input and record the output of digital data generated through an 8-bit LED display.
Table 4. ADC test results.
Digital data input voltage
0.6 v 23 H
1.2 41 v H
1.8 62 v H
2.6 v H 8D
3.4 v B7 H
4 v DF H
4.2 v EF H
FF v 4.9 H
ADC data test results indicate that these components can work well.
4.1.4 Software Testing
Software testing program involved testing of the temperature data acquisition and calibration of data acquisition of temperature on the LCD display. The process of testing done by looking at the digital data visually displayed on the LED indicator is the data acquired and comparing the results of the temperature display on the LCD.
Table 5. Results of testing temperature display
Digital temperature displays temperature data calculated
25 H 35 ° C 35.294 ° C
43 H 44 ° C 44.117 ° C
63 H 53 ° C 53.823 ° C
8D H 66 ° C 66.470 ° C
B7 H 78 ° C 78.823 ° C
DF H 90 ° C 90.588 ° C
EF H 95 ° C 95.294 ° C
FF H 100 ° C 100 ° C
From the table note that the temperature displayed on the LCD with the temperature of the calculation there is a difference in terms of accuracy, where the temperature is displayed on the LCD is a rounded value without displaying the value behind the comma, while the temperature is calculated as the temperature standard that must be displayed. Removal of the coma is intended to facilitate the process of making the program, but with the consequences of error rates due to the removal of the displayed temperature. Software has to calibrate the digital data and displays the temperature value of a plant, then the software has to work properly.
4.2 Testing the overall system
Testing the overall system is done by placing the sensor LM35 and thermometers in the temperature of the same plant and then compares the temperature is displayed on the LCD appointment to appointment of temperature on the thermometer for 30 minutes.
Table 6. Results of testing system
Display temperature
LCD temperature display thermometer Error
30 ° C 29.7 ° C 0.3 ° C
32 ° C 32 ° C 0 ° C
34 ° C 34 ° C 0 ° C
37 ° C 37.5 ° C 0.5 ° C
40 ° C 40 ° C 0 ° C
45 ° C 45.6 ° C 0.6 ° C
46 ° C 46 ° C 0 ° C
47 ° C 46.7 ° C 0.3 ° C
error 1.7 ° C
The results showed that the temperature data acquisition system has an average error of 0.2125 ° C, this value is obtained by summing all the error value of each test divided by the number of tests (8 times).
V. CLOSING
5.1.1 Conclusion
From the design and manufacture of temperature acquisition system device can be concluded that - as follows:
1. ADC Test results indicate that for input of 4.9 V digital data has reached FFH, then the designation will result in errors when the temperature where the input voltage 4.9 V displays the temperature has reached 100 ° C.
2. Error average temperature on the appointment of the temperature data acquisition system is 0.2125 ° C.
3. LM35 has a sensor output voltage with an increase of 50 mV for every 5 ° C or 10 mV / ° C, the sensor has a fairly linear increase.
5.2 Suggestions
1. At the output end signal conditioning circuit should be added clipper circuit which serves to limit the ADC input for a maximum of 5V.
2. To simplify the zero setting of the differential amplifier circuit output LM35 should be strengthened so that the first reference voltage reduction is not too small.
3. Reference voltage source deduction should use a zener diode to obtain a stable voltage.
4. To make more precise temperature data view, the calibration program can be made better temperature data.
Temperature data acquisition using microcontroller
History of Computers
Computers we use today are not necessarily just show up but through a long process of evolution. Happenings emergence of the computer may be viewed in flashback history since the use of Abacus - found in Babylon (Iraq) about 5000 years ago - as a means of manual calculation of the first, both in the scope of the school and among traders, at the time.
At a later period has been widely found in the means of calculating the mechanical kind that is Pascaline invented by Blaine Pascal in 1642, arithometer by Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar in 1820, Babbage's Folly by Charles Babbage in 1822, and Hollerith by Herman Hollerith in the year 1889.
All are still a machine entirely without electricity. The size and complexity of its structure based on calculations performed the operation level. It was only in 1940, began a new era since the invention of electrical computer electrically computers that implement Boolean algebra.
The development of computer technology which is described below in the top four generations based on the components it uses, ranging from the size of "big" to micro-line also with the complexity of its components.
First Generation
Today is the era giant computers, such as Z3, Colossus, ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC I. Characteristics of computers in this era marked by the size almost as big as the bedroom, using a vacuum tube with a number of very much to store and process the orders or instructions, consuming thousands of watts of electric power, using machine language and can only be used by a person trained.
So, the layman would not be able to use it so that computers of this type has not been commercialized to the general public. Only large corporations, educational institutions and government agencies that use it.
Second Generation
This era began with the use of transistors and diodes as a replacement of vacuum tube that sizenya smaller than its predecessor generation.
Another invention is the use of magnetic core memory that hold data, so much faster in data processing, and machine language has been replaced with assembly language (Fortran and Cobol) that facilitate the operation. Some examples of the computer at this time, the Stretch, LARC, DEC PDP-8, IBM 1401, IBM 7090 and IBM 7094.
Third Generation
A new era of computer communication set foot on the momentum from this. Most large companies implement on-line system using a remote terminal in the use of computers (read: on-line).
This technology must be supported by an increasingly computer performance in terms of both hardware and software usage. New discoveries in the field of hardware acted with the emergence of IC (Integrated Circuit) in computer components.
Because of its advantages in uniting the various components in a single chip so that the computer at the time computers became ever smaller size without degrading the performance of the output, and even further improve its performance.
In the software, programming techniques plural (Multi-Programming) began to be developed so that more and add a collection of various existing programming languages. Cray-1, 90/30 UNIVAC and IBM 360 is a few examples of computers in this generation.
Fourth Generation
Along with the speed of time development of the computer as a tool of data processing has increased rapidly, especially in this generation. The growing speed is inversely proportional to the smaller size, supported by a larger memory capacity. The price is getting cheaper due to its components have been manufactured and sold in mass.
In this period various IC united into a single unit forming a component called the VLSI (Very Large Scale IC). Use of the software more easily and develop into effect on home computers, such as word processing and spreadsheet. Internet network was more extensive that previously only enjoyed by the elite groups now can be used also by ordinary people.
The use of microprocessor is now an absolute no longer used only on computers but has been applied to other electronic products, such as televisions and microwaves. Seeing the development of the computer world a very high rate of growth starting from the beginning to the present generation can we predict how the characteristics of the computer on future generations.
Possibly, the computer will not have to continue to be dictated by the man but he had to do everything yourself. Virtually ability already resembles human intelligence. Such capabilities (Artificial Intelligence or Artificial Intelligence) is now actively investigated by the developed countries like Japan and the United States.
Author
Azhar H. Bakrit
At a later period has been widely found in the means of calculating the mechanical kind that is Pascaline invented by Blaine Pascal in 1642, arithometer by Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar in 1820, Babbage's Folly by Charles Babbage in 1822, and Hollerith by Herman Hollerith in the year 1889.
All are still a machine entirely without electricity. The size and complexity of its structure based on calculations performed the operation level. It was only in 1940, began a new era since the invention of electrical computer electrically computers that implement Boolean algebra.
The development of computer technology which is described below in the top four generations based on the components it uses, ranging from the size of "big" to micro-line also with the complexity of its components.
First Generation
Today is the era giant computers, such as Z3, Colossus, ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC I. Characteristics of computers in this era marked by the size almost as big as the bedroom, using a vacuum tube with a number of very much to store and process the orders or instructions, consuming thousands of watts of electric power, using machine language and can only be used by a person trained.
So, the layman would not be able to use it so that computers of this type has not been commercialized to the general public. Only large corporations, educational institutions and government agencies that use it.
Second Generation
This era began with the use of transistors and diodes as a replacement of vacuum tube that sizenya smaller than its predecessor generation.
Another invention is the use of magnetic core memory that hold data, so much faster in data processing, and machine language has been replaced with assembly language (Fortran and Cobol) that facilitate the operation. Some examples of the computer at this time, the Stretch, LARC, DEC PDP-8, IBM 1401, IBM 7090 and IBM 7094.
Third Generation
A new era of computer communication set foot on the momentum from this. Most large companies implement on-line system using a remote terminal in the use of computers (read: on-line).
This technology must be supported by an increasingly computer performance in terms of both hardware and software usage. New discoveries in the field of hardware acted with the emergence of IC (Integrated Circuit) in computer components.
Because of its advantages in uniting the various components in a single chip so that the computer at the time computers became ever smaller size without degrading the performance of the output, and even further improve its performance.
In the software, programming techniques plural (Multi-Programming) began to be developed so that more and add a collection of various existing programming languages. Cray-1, 90/30 UNIVAC and IBM 360 is a few examples of computers in this generation.
Fourth Generation
Along with the speed of time development of the computer as a tool of data processing has increased rapidly, especially in this generation. The growing speed is inversely proportional to the smaller size, supported by a larger memory capacity. The price is getting cheaper due to its components have been manufactured and sold in mass.
In this period various IC united into a single unit forming a component called the VLSI (Very Large Scale IC). Use of the software more easily and develop into effect on home computers, such as word processing and spreadsheet. Internet network was more extensive that previously only enjoyed by the elite groups now can be used also by ordinary people.
The use of microprocessor is now an absolute no longer used only on computers but has been applied to other electronic products, such as televisions and microwaves. Seeing the development of the computer world a very high rate of growth starting from the beginning to the present generation can we predict how the characteristics of the computer on future generations.
Possibly, the computer will not have to continue to be dictated by the man but he had to do everything yourself. Virtually ability already resembles human intelligence. Such capabilities (Artificial Intelligence or Artificial Intelligence) is now actively investigated by the developed countries like Japan and the United States.
Author
Azhar H. Bakrit
History of Computers
COMPUTER NETWORK TECHNOLOGY
COMPUTER NETWORK TECHNOLOGY
A. Preliminary
Computer networks is not something new today. Almost in every company there is a computer network to facilitate information flow within the company.
Internet is gaining popularity today is a giant computer network which is a network of computers connected and can interact with each other. This can happen because of the development of network technologies very rapidly, so that within a few years the number of users of computer networks belonging to the Internet doubled.
B. Computer Networking
1. Definition
Computer network is a collection of computers, printers and other equipment are connected. Information and data moves through the wires to allow users of computer networks can exchange documents and data, print on the same printer and share the hardware / software that connects to the network.
Each computer, printer or peripherals that connect denganjaringan called nodes. A computer network can have two, tens, thousands or even millions of nodes. A network typically consists of 2 or more computers that are interconnected among each other, and share resources such as CD-ROM,
Printers, exchange files, or the ability to electronically communicate with each other. Computers that connect those, made possible with the media cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellite, or infrared rays.
2. Network Types
There are 3 kinds of Networks / Network are:
a. Local Area Network (LAN) / Local Area Network.
A LAN is a network that is limited by a relatively small area, generally bounded by the area like an office environment in a building, or a school, and usually not far from about 1 km square.
Several models of LAN configuration, one computer is usually made in a file server. Which is used to store software (software) that regulate network activity, or as software that can be used by komputerkomputer that is connected to the network.
The computers are connected to the network (network) is usually called a workstation. Workstation capabilities more usually under the file server and have other applications in the hard drive in addition to applications for the network. Most LANs use the media cable for connecting between one computer to another computer.
b. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) / Metropolitan area network
A MAN, usually covering a larger area than a LAN, for example between regions within a province. In this case the network connecting several small networks into larger areas of environment, for example are: network
Bank where several branches of a bank in a big city is connected between each other. For example, Bank BNI in the entire region or Surabaya Ujung Pandang.
c. Wide Area Network (WAN) / Large Scale area network
Wide Area Networks (WAN) is a network that already use a scope usually means satellite or submarine cable as an example of the whole network BANK BNI in Indonesia or in other countries.
Using the WAN facilities, a bank in Bandung can contact its branch offices in Hong Kong, just a few minutes. WAN usually rather complicated and very complex, using many means to connect between LAN and WAN to the Global Communications such as the Internet.
But somehow between LAN, MAN and WAN are not much different in some respects, only the scope of the area is just a different one among others.
3. Protocol
Protocol is a set of rules that govern communications between computers on a network, the rules include guidelines that apply to the ways or methods of accessing a network, physical topology, the types of cable and data transfer speeds.
Protocols supported are as follows:
1. Ethernet
2. Local Talk
3. Token Ring
4. FDDI
5. ATM
Ethernet
Ethernet protocol is by far the most widely used, the Ethernet access method called CSMA / CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection). This is a system where each computer listens to the cable network before sending anything into it.
If the network is clear, the computer will transmit the data, if there is another transmission on the cable, the computer will wait and will try to re-transmission if the network has been clean.
Sometimes, two computers transmit at the same time, when this happens, each computer will be back and will wait a random chance to transmit data back. This method is known to the coalition, and will not affect the speed of transmission on the network.
The Ethernet protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree. Data can be transmitted over twisted pair cable, coaxial, or fiber optic cable at speeds of 10 Mbps.
A. Preliminary
Computer networks is not something new today. Almost in every company there is a computer network to facilitate information flow within the company.
Internet is gaining popularity today is a giant computer network which is a network of computers connected and can interact with each other. This can happen because of the development of network technologies very rapidly, so that within a few years the number of users of computer networks belonging to the Internet doubled.
B. Computer Networking
1. Definition
Computer network is a collection of computers, printers and other equipment are connected. Information and data moves through the wires to allow users of computer networks can exchange documents and data, print on the same printer and share the hardware / software that connects to the network.
Each computer, printer or peripherals that connect denganjaringan called nodes. A computer network can have two, tens, thousands or even millions of nodes. A network typically consists of 2 or more computers that are interconnected among each other, and share resources such as CD-ROM,
Printers, exchange files, or the ability to electronically communicate with each other. Computers that connect those, made possible with the media cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellite, or infrared rays.
2. Network Types
There are 3 kinds of Networks / Network are:
a. Local Area Network (LAN) / Local Area Network.
A LAN is a network that is limited by a relatively small area, generally bounded by the area like an office environment in a building, or a school, and usually not far from about 1 km square.
Several models of LAN configuration, one computer is usually made in a file server. Which is used to store software (software) that regulate network activity, or as software that can be used by komputerkomputer that is connected to the network.
The computers are connected to the network (network) is usually called a workstation. Workstation capabilities more usually under the file server and have other applications in the hard drive in addition to applications for the network. Most LANs use the media cable for connecting between one computer to another computer.
b. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) / Metropolitan area network
A MAN, usually covering a larger area than a LAN, for example between regions within a province. In this case the network connecting several small networks into larger areas of environment, for example are: network
Bank where several branches of a bank in a big city is connected between each other. For example, Bank BNI in the entire region or Surabaya Ujung Pandang.
c. Wide Area Network (WAN) / Large Scale area network
Wide Area Networks (WAN) is a network that already use a scope usually means satellite or submarine cable as an example of the whole network BANK BNI in Indonesia or in other countries.
Using the WAN facilities, a bank in Bandung can contact its branch offices in Hong Kong, just a few minutes. WAN usually rather complicated and very complex, using many means to connect between LAN and WAN to the Global Communications such as the Internet.
But somehow between LAN, MAN and WAN are not much different in some respects, only the scope of the area is just a different one among others.
3. Protocol
Protocol is a set of rules that govern communications between computers on a network, the rules include guidelines that apply to the ways or methods of accessing a network, physical topology, the types of cable and data transfer speeds.
Protocols supported are as follows:
1. Ethernet
2. Local Talk
3. Token Ring
4. FDDI
5. ATM
Ethernet
Ethernet protocol is by far the most widely used, the Ethernet access method called CSMA / CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection). This is a system where each computer listens to the cable network before sending anything into it.
If the network is clear, the computer will transmit the data, if there is another transmission on the cable, the computer will wait and will try to re-transmission if the network has been clean.
Sometimes, two computers transmit at the same time, when this happens, each computer will be back and will wait a random chance to transmit data back. This method is known to the coalition, and will not affect the speed of transmission on the network.
The Ethernet protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree. Data can be transmitted over twisted pair cable, coaxial, or fiber optic cable at speeds of 10 Mbps.
COMPUTER NETWORK TECHNOLOGY
AVR Microcontroller Programming with C
Programming Language C for AVR widely used C language for programming a variety of devices, including microcontrollers. This language is already a high level language, which allows programmers pouring algorithm. To know basic C language can be studied as follows.
1. Coding Structure
# Include <[library1.h]> / / Optional
# Include <[library2.h]> / / Optional
# Define [name1] [value]; / / Optional
# Define [name2] [value]; / / Optional
[Global variables] / / Optional
[Functions] / / Optional
void main (void) / / Main Program
{[Declaration of local variable / constant] [Contents Main Program]}
2. Data type
char: 1 byte (-128 s / d 127)
unsigned char: 1 byte (0 to 255)
int: 2 bytes (-32 768 s / d 32 767)
unsigned int: 2 bytes (0 s / d 65 535)
Long: 4 bytes (-2,147,483,648 s / d 2147483647)
unsigned long: 4 bytes (0 to 4,294,967,295)
float: decimal
array: a collection of the same data type.
3. Declaration of variables and constants
The variable is a data storage memory whose value can be changed.
Writing: [Data type] [name] = [value];
Constant is data storage memory whose value can not be changed.
Writing: const [name] = [value];
Supplement: Global variables / constants that can be accessed throughout the program.
Local variables / constants that can only be accessed by the function of the declaration.
4. Statement
Statement means any operation in programming, should end with [;] or [}]. Statement will not be executed if preceded by a [/ /] for a single line. More than 1 line to use the couple [/ *] and [* /]. Statement is not executed is also called comments / commentary.
Example: temperature = adc/255 * 100; / / example of formula calculation temperature
5. Function Function
is part of a program that can be called by the main program.
Writing: [type data] [function name] ([type of data input 1], [type of data input 2]) {[statement];}
6. Conditional if else statements and loops
used for the selection condition
if ([requirements]) {[statement1]; [statement2];} else {[statement3]; [statement4];}
for: used for loops with a known amount
for ([initial value]; [requirements]: [the operation value]) {[statement1]; [statement2];}
while loop: used to loop if and flesh, certain eligible
while ([requirements]) {[statement1]; [statement2];}
do while loop: used to loop if and flesh meet certain requirements, but min 1 time
do {[statement1]; [statement2];} while ([requirement])
switch case: used for selection with many conditions
switch ([variable name]) {case [value1]: [statement]; break; case [value2]: [statement]; break;}
7. Operation logic and binary logic
AND: & &
NOT:!
OR: | |
Binary AND: &
OR: |
XOR: ^
Shift right:>>
Shift left: <<
Complement: ~
8. Relational operations (comparisons)
Equal to: ==
Not equal:! =
Bigger:>
Bigger equals:> =
Smaller: <
Smaller equal to: <=
9. Arithmetic operations
+, -, *, /: Add, less, times, for
+ =, -=, *=, / =: Value to the left of the operator on the plus / less / multiply / divide by the value of the right of the operator
%: Remainder for
+ +, -: Plus one (increment), less one (decrement)
Example:
a = 5 * 6 + 2 / 2 -1;
then the value of a is 30 a *= 5;
if the initial value of a is 30, then the value of a = 30x5 = 150. a + = 3;
if the initial value of a is 30, then the value of a = 30 +5 = 33. a + +;
if the initial value of a is 5 then the value of a = a +1 = 6. a -;
if the initial value of a is 5 then the value of a = a-1 = 4.
1. Coding Structure
# Include <[library1.h]> / / Optional
# Include <[library2.h]> / / Optional
# Define [name1] [value]; / / Optional
# Define [name2] [value]; / / Optional
[Global variables] / / Optional
[Functions] / / Optional
void main (void) / / Main Program
{[Declaration of local variable / constant] [Contents Main Program]}
2. Data type
char: 1 byte (-128 s / d 127)
unsigned char: 1 byte (0 to 255)
int: 2 bytes (-32 768 s / d 32 767)
unsigned int: 2 bytes (0 s / d 65 535)
Long: 4 bytes (-2,147,483,648 s / d 2147483647)
unsigned long: 4 bytes (0 to 4,294,967,295)
float: decimal
array: a collection of the same data type.
3. Declaration of variables and constants
The variable is a data storage memory whose value can be changed.
Writing: [Data type] [name] = [value];
Constant is data storage memory whose value can not be changed.
Writing: const [name] = [value];
Supplement: Global variables / constants that can be accessed throughout the program.
Local variables / constants that can only be accessed by the function of the declaration.
4. Statement
Statement means any operation in programming, should end with [;] or [}]. Statement will not be executed if preceded by a [/ /] for a single line. More than 1 line to use the couple [/ *] and [* /]. Statement is not executed is also called comments / commentary.
Example: temperature = adc/255 * 100; / / example of formula calculation temperature
5. Function Function
is part of a program that can be called by the main program.
Writing: [type data] [function name] ([type of data input 1], [type of data input 2]) {[statement];}
6. Conditional if else statements and loops
used for the selection condition
if ([requirements]) {[statement1]; [statement2];} else {[statement3]; [statement4];}
for: used for loops with a known amount
for ([initial value]; [requirements]: [the operation value]) {[statement1]; [statement2];}
while loop: used to loop if and flesh, certain eligible
while ([requirements]) {[statement1]; [statement2];}
do while loop: used to loop if and flesh meet certain requirements, but min 1 time
do {[statement1]; [statement2];} while ([requirement])
switch case: used for selection with many conditions
switch ([variable name]) {case [value1]: [statement]; break; case [value2]: [statement]; break;}
7. Operation logic and binary logic
AND: & &
NOT:!
OR: | |
Binary AND: &
OR: |
XOR: ^
Shift right:>>
Shift left: <<
Complement: ~
8. Relational operations (comparisons)
Equal to: ==
Not equal:! =
Bigger:>
Bigger equals:> =
Smaller: <
Smaller equal to: <=
9. Arithmetic operations
+, -, *, /: Add, less, times, for
+ =, -=, *=, / =: Value to the left of the operator on the plus / less / multiply / divide by the value of the right of the operator
%: Remainder for
+ +, -: Plus one (increment), less one (decrement)
Example:
a = 5 * 6 + 2 / 2 -1;
then the value of a is 30 a *= 5;
if the initial value of a is 30, then the value of a = 30x5 = 150. a + = 3;
if the initial value of a is 30, then the value of a = 30 +5 = 33. a + +;
if the initial value of a is 5 then the value of a = a +1 = 6. a -;
if the initial value of a is 5 then the value of a = a-1 = 4.
AVR Microcontroller Programming with C
Mystery Numbers : Zero
Yusmichad Yusdja, staff researcher at the Center for Research and Social and Economic Development of Agriculture IPB
Hundreds of years ago, people only Knew the 9 symbol numbers 1, 2, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. Then, come the number 0, so the number of symbol numbers into 10 pieces. It is unknown WHO's the creator of the number 0, the only historical evidence shows That the number 0, first discovered in ancient Egyptian times.
At That time only as a symbol number zero. In modern times, the number zero is Used not only as a symbol, but Also as the number WHO participated in mathematical operations. Now, use the number zero has infiltrated deep into the joints of human life.
Counting system is no longer possible to ignore the presence of zero, although zero-one made a mess of logic. Let's see.
Zero, cause crashes
Lessons about the number zero, from ancient times Until now always cause confusion for students and students, and even the user community. Why? Is not zero-one represents something That does not exist and That nothing was there, namely zero.
Who is not confused? EACH time the number zero appears in mathematics there is always a weird idea. Like the idea if something is multiplied by 0 then Becomes not exist. Could it be 5 * 0 to not exist? (* Is multiplication). This idea makes people frustrated. Is zero magician?
Worse yet-confused-why Would increase is 5 +0 = 5 and 5 * 0 = 5 as well? Indeed Such a rule, Because of zero in multiplication is the identity numbers are equal to 1. So 5 * 0 = 5 * 1. However, it is true That Also 5 * 0 = 0. Waw. What about 5o = 1, but 50o = 1, too?
a, never mind. Another rule of zero the which is mysterious Also Is That a number is divided by zero if not defined. That is, whatever number That cans not be divided by zero. Sophisticated computer earnest Suddenly somehow die if a sudden meeting with a zero divisor. Computers are ordered to stop to think if he met the divisor is zero.
Numbers zero: homeless
Numbers have been Prepared based on the hierarchy by a single straight line. At the starting point is the number zero, then number 1, 2, and so on. Greater numbers on the right and a Smaller numbers on the left. The farther to the right will from some events this Greater number.
Based on the degree of hierarchy (and bureaucracy numbers), a person walking from point 0 if continually Towards Greater numbers to the right earnest reach the numbers the which do not infinite. However, that person May Also come to the point 0 again.
Is not this world round? Could it be? Columbus Did not Say That if he kept sailing Until Would he return to Europe?
Another. If someone departs from zero, it is not possible Until the number 4 without first passing numbers 1, 2, and 3. But more strange is the question of possible Could someone go from point zero?
Obviously not, Because it is not the point of zero point something That does not exist? Strange and hard to believe? Let's look Further.
If in Between two numbers or Between two points there is a segment. EACH number has a vertebra. If this segment is cut into pieces and then a black circle dots Moved into the middle segment, was number 0 does not have sections. Thus, the number zero was in the clouds.
Numbers zero alias has no homeless shelter. That is why, why the number zero Should Be attached to another number, for example, in figure 1 form the number 10, 100, 109, 10 403 and so forth. So, one cans never go from zero to the number 4. We must Depart from the 1.
Easy, but wrong
The teacher ACKs the Ani describes a geometric lines of the equation 3x +7 y = 25. Ani think That to get a line That needed two points from end to end. However, after the count is calculated, it turns out there's only one point passed the line, ie, point A (6, 1), for x = 6 and y = 1. So That Annie cans not make the line.
The teacher warned That using the number zero. Yes, that's the way out. First, give y = 0 obtained by x = (25-0) / 3 = 8 (rounded), is the first point, B (8.0). Furthermore, given x = 0 obtained by y = (25-3.0) / 7 = 4 (rounded), is the second point C (0,4). Line BC, is the line in question. However, how disappointed the teacher, Because the line was not through point A. Thus, the BC line is wrong.
Ani defend themselves That the error was very small and cans be ignored. Teachers stated That it was not a small amount of Mistakes, but Nowhere Is That correct? Is not the line BC cans be made through the point A? Said the teacher, use the number zero in the right way.
How do We have to help Annie make the correct line is? Easy, says consultant Mathematics. At first the value of 25 in 3x +7 y Should Be Replaced with the result of multiplying 3 and 7 That obtained 3x +7 y = 21.
Furthermore, in the new equation, given y = 0 obtained x = 21 / 3 = 7 (without rounding) was the first point P (6.1). Then give the value x = 0 obtained by y = 21 / 7 = 3 (without rounding), that's the second point Q (0, 3).
The line PQ is a line parallel to the line to be searched, namely 3x +7 y = 25. Through point A drag line parallel to PQ obtained P1Q1 line. Well, that's it. The students have found the correct line thanks to the help number zero.
However, the teacher was very disappointed Because no one Actually Had the correct line. Is not in the equation 3x1 +7 x2 = 25 'there is only one solution That point is point A, the which means the equation 3x1 +7 x2-shaped it's just a point?
Even in the equation 3x1 +7 x2 = 21 does not exist a point no matter Who is in line PQ. Therefore, the line PQ in the system of integers, does not really exist. Strange, the number zero has deceived us. That fact, the equation does not always form a line.
Moving, but stationary
Numbers do not only consist of integers, but Also there is a decimal number, Among others, from 0.1, 0.01, 0,001; and so strong-as strong as We can call it up so small. Since very little cans no longer be Called or not infinite and in the end it is Considered zero.
But this idea turned out was confusing Because if an infinitely small number treated as zero then means zero is the smallest number? In fact, the zero represents something That does not exist? Waw. That's it.
Based on the concept of decimals and continuous, then We use the number line is not That Simple Because Between two numbers there is always a number to three. If someone jumped from number 1 to number 2, but with the condition have to jump over Them first to the nearest decimal, can he?
What is the nearest decimal before it reached the number 2? It Could Be the number 1 / 2. However, you Should not jump to number 1 / 2 Because there is still a Smaller numbers, namely 1 / 4.
So there is always a number That more closely ... namely 0.1 and then there are 0.01, 0.001, ..., 0.000001. and so on, so That eventually the number closest to the number 1 is so small That number is Considered to be zero. Because the nearest number is zero alias does not exist, then you cans never jump to number 2?
Hundreds of years ago, people only Knew the 9 symbol numbers 1, 2, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. Then, come the number 0, so the number of symbol numbers into 10 pieces. It is unknown WHO's the creator of the number 0, the only historical evidence shows That the number 0, first discovered in ancient Egyptian times.
At That time only as a symbol number zero. In modern times, the number zero is Used not only as a symbol, but Also as the number WHO participated in mathematical operations. Now, use the number zero has infiltrated deep into the joints of human life.
Counting system is no longer possible to ignore the presence of zero, although zero-one made a mess of logic. Let's see.
Zero, cause crashes
Lessons about the number zero, from ancient times Until now always cause confusion for students and students, and even the user community. Why? Is not zero-one represents something That does not exist and That nothing was there, namely zero.
Who is not confused? EACH time the number zero appears in mathematics there is always a weird idea. Like the idea if something is multiplied by 0 then Becomes not exist. Could it be 5 * 0 to not exist? (* Is multiplication). This idea makes people frustrated. Is zero magician?
Worse yet-confused-why Would increase is 5 +0 = 5 and 5 * 0 = 5 as well? Indeed Such a rule, Because of zero in multiplication is the identity numbers are equal to 1. So 5 * 0 = 5 * 1. However, it is true That Also 5 * 0 = 0. Waw. What about 5o = 1, but 50o = 1, too?
a, never mind. Another rule of zero the which is mysterious Also Is That a number is divided by zero if not defined. That is, whatever number That cans not be divided by zero. Sophisticated computer earnest Suddenly somehow die if a sudden meeting with a zero divisor. Computers are ordered to stop to think if he met the divisor is zero.
Numbers zero: homeless
Numbers have been Prepared based on the hierarchy by a single straight line. At the starting point is the number zero, then number 1, 2, and so on. Greater numbers on the right and a Smaller numbers on the left. The farther to the right will from some events this Greater number.
Based on the degree of hierarchy (and bureaucracy numbers), a person walking from point 0 if continually Towards Greater numbers to the right earnest reach the numbers the which do not infinite. However, that person May Also come to the point 0 again.
Is not this world round? Could it be? Columbus Did not Say That if he kept sailing Until Would he return to Europe?
Another. If someone departs from zero, it is not possible Until the number 4 without first passing numbers 1, 2, and 3. But more strange is the question of possible Could someone go from point zero?
Obviously not, Because it is not the point of zero point something That does not exist? Strange and hard to believe? Let's look Further.
If in Between two numbers or Between two points there is a segment. EACH number has a vertebra. If this segment is cut into pieces and then a black circle dots Moved into the middle segment, was number 0 does not have sections. Thus, the number zero was in the clouds.
Numbers zero alias has no homeless shelter. That is why, why the number zero Should Be attached to another number, for example, in figure 1 form the number 10, 100, 109, 10 403 and so forth. So, one cans never go from zero to the number 4. We must Depart from the 1.
Easy, but wrong
The teacher ACKs the Ani describes a geometric lines of the equation 3x +7 y = 25. Ani think That to get a line That needed two points from end to end. However, after the count is calculated, it turns out there's only one point passed the line, ie, point A (6, 1), for x = 6 and y = 1. So That Annie cans not make the line.
The teacher warned That using the number zero. Yes, that's the way out. First, give y = 0 obtained by x = (25-0) / 3 = 8 (rounded), is the first point, B (8.0). Furthermore, given x = 0 obtained by y = (25-3.0) / 7 = 4 (rounded), is the second point C (0,4). Line BC, is the line in question. However, how disappointed the teacher, Because the line was not through point A. Thus, the BC line is wrong.
Ani defend themselves That the error was very small and cans be ignored. Teachers stated That it was not a small amount of Mistakes, but Nowhere Is That correct? Is not the line BC cans be made through the point A? Said the teacher, use the number zero in the right way.
How do We have to help Annie make the correct line is? Easy, says consultant Mathematics. At first the value of 25 in 3x +7 y Should Be Replaced with the result of multiplying 3 and 7 That obtained 3x +7 y = 21.
Furthermore, in the new equation, given y = 0 obtained x = 21 / 3 = 7 (without rounding) was the first point P (6.1). Then give the value x = 0 obtained by y = 21 / 7 = 3 (without rounding), that's the second point Q (0, 3).
The line PQ is a line parallel to the line to be searched, namely 3x +7 y = 25. Through point A drag line parallel to PQ obtained P1Q1 line. Well, that's it. The students have found the correct line thanks to the help number zero.
However, the teacher was very disappointed Because no one Actually Had the correct line. Is not in the equation 3x1 +7 x2 = 25 'there is only one solution That point is point A, the which means the equation 3x1 +7 x2-shaped it's just a point?
Even in the equation 3x1 +7 x2 = 21 does not exist a point no matter Who is in line PQ. Therefore, the line PQ in the system of integers, does not really exist. Strange, the number zero has deceived us. That fact, the equation does not always form a line.
Moving, but stationary
Numbers do not only consist of integers, but Also there is a decimal number, Among others, from 0.1, 0.01, 0,001; and so strong-as strong as We can call it up so small. Since very little cans no longer be Called or not infinite and in the end it is Considered zero.
But this idea turned out was confusing Because if an infinitely small number treated as zero then means zero is the smallest number? In fact, the zero represents something That does not exist? Waw. That's it.
Based on the concept of decimals and continuous, then We use the number line is not That Simple Because Between two numbers there is always a number to three. If someone jumped from number 1 to number 2, but with the condition have to jump over Them first to the nearest decimal, can he?
What is the nearest decimal before it reached the number 2? It Could Be the number 1 / 2. However, you Should not jump to number 1 / 2 Because there is still a Smaller numbers, namely 1 / 4.
So there is always a number That more closely ... namely 0.1 and then there are 0.01, 0.001, ..., 0.000001. and so on, so That eventually the number closest to the number 1 is so small That number is Considered to be zero. Because the nearest number is zero alias does not exist, then you cans never jump to number 2?
Mystery Numbers : Zero
Mystery of Black Holes Numbers: 123
In astronomy and physics, we know of the existence of a natural phenomenon that is very interesting that a black hole (black hole). Black hole is an entity that has a very strong gravitational fields so that every object that has fallen in the area of event horizon (the area around the core of a black hole), will not be able to escape again. In fact, any electromagnetic radiation such as light can not escape, resulting in a black hole becomes "invisible."
Apparently, in mathematics there is also a unique phenomenon that is similar to the phenomenon of black hole that is the number of black holes. How real numbers that black hole? Let us briefly playing with numbers.
Try to choose as they pleased you a natural numbers (numbers from 1 to infinity). For example, let's say 141,985. Then count the number of digits is even, odd digits, and the total number of digits.
In this case, we get 2 (two-digit even-numbered), 4 (four digits odd), and 6 (six is the total number of digits). Then use these digits (2, 4, and 6) to form the next number, namely 246.
Repeat count the number of digits is even, odd digits, and the total number of 246 digits in this. We get 3 (digits even), 0 (odd digits), and 3 (the total number of digits), so we get 303.
Repeat again count the number of digits is even, odd, and the total digits in the number 303. (Note: 0 is an even number). We get 1, 2, 3 which can be written 123.
If we repeat the steps above to the number 123, we will get 123 again. Thus, the number 123 through this process is a black hole for all other numbers. All numbers in the universe will be drawn into numbers 123 through this process, none of which would qualify.
But was it all the numbers would be 123? Now let's try a very large number of value, for example, say 122333444455555666666777777788888888999999999.
The number of digits is even, odd, and the total is 20, 25, and 45. So, the next number is 202 545. Do more iterations (repetitions), we get 4, 2, and 6, so now we get 426. Iteration once again to 303 and 426 will result in the last iteration of 303 will be obtained 123.
Up to this point, no matter how many times iteration of the 123 will still be obtained by 123 again. Thus, 123 is the absolute point of the black hole in the world of numbers.
However, whether there may be a number, tucked between the jungle numbers which the universe is infinite, which can escape from the bondage of death the number of black holes, the 123 which is mysterious?
Apparently, in mathematics there is also a unique phenomenon that is similar to the phenomenon of black hole that is the number of black holes. How real numbers that black hole? Let us briefly playing with numbers.
Try to choose as they pleased you a natural numbers (numbers from 1 to infinity). For example, let's say 141,985. Then count the number of digits is even, odd digits, and the total number of digits.
In this case, we get 2 (two-digit even-numbered), 4 (four digits odd), and 6 (six is the total number of digits). Then use these digits (2, 4, and 6) to form the next number, namely 246.
Repeat count the number of digits is even, odd digits, and the total number of 246 digits in this. We get 3 (digits even), 0 (odd digits), and 3 (the total number of digits), so we get 303.
Repeat again count the number of digits is even, odd, and the total digits in the number 303. (Note: 0 is an even number). We get 1, 2, 3 which can be written 123.
If we repeat the steps above to the number 123, we will get 123 again. Thus, the number 123 through this process is a black hole for all other numbers. All numbers in the universe will be drawn into numbers 123 through this process, none of which would qualify.
But was it all the numbers would be 123? Now let's try a very large number of value, for example, say 122333444455555666666777777788888888999999999.
The number of digits is even, odd, and the total is 20, 25, and 45. So, the next number is 202 545. Do more iterations (repetitions), we get 4, 2, and 6, so now we get 426. Iteration once again to 303 and 426 will result in the last iteration of 303 will be obtained 123.
Up to this point, no matter how many times iteration of the 123 will still be obtained by 123 again. Thus, 123 is the absolute point of the black hole in the world of numbers.
However, whether there may be a number, tucked between the jungle numbers which the universe is infinite, which can escape from the bondage of death the number of black holes, the 123 which is mysterious?
Mystery of Black Holes Numbers: 123
Saturday, May 21, 2011
What is radiocarbon dating technique can be used to find out what age?
This technique will not help us if we want to know is still in his life, such as friends talked us through the Internet that claim to 25 years. Determination of age using radiocarbon dating techniques (radiocarbon dating) is useful to determine the remaining life of plant or animal that died about five hundred to fifty thousand years ago.
Since the discovery by a professor of chemistry University of Chicago, Willard F. Libby (1908-1980) around 1950s (he received the Nobel Prize for the discovery in 1960), radiocarbon dating techniques have become very powerful tools in archaeological research, oceanography, and several other disciplines.
For radiocarbon dating techniques to tell the age of an object, that object must contain organic carbon, namely carbon which had been part of the body of plants or animals. Radiocarbon dating methods tell us how long ago the plant or animal life, or more precisely, how long ago the plant or animal dies.
Radiocarbon test can be conducted on materials such as wood, bone, charcoal from the hearth of ancient camp or cave, or even a linen cloth used to wrap mummies, because the linen cloth made from flax plant fibers.
Carbon is a chemical element that was conceived by every living creature in the form of various biochemical substances, in proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, hormones, enzymes, etc.. Indeed, the study of chemistry of carbon-based chemicals called "organic chemistry" because once people believe that the only place for these chemicals are living creatures.
Now, people know that we can make all kinds of carbon-based organic chemicals from petroleum without having to take of plant or animal.
However, carbon in living things differ in one important case of carbon in the materials are not living things such as coal, petroleum, and minerals. Carbon "live" carbon atmospheres containing small amounts of certain types called carbon-14, while the carbon "dead" only contain atoms of carbon-12 and carbon-13.
The three kinds of different carbon atoms are called isotopes of carbon, they all behave the same chemically, but have a different weight, or more precisely, have different masses.
What is unique about the carbon-14, in addition to its mass, is because they are radioactive. Namely, they are unstable and tend to become weak, fragmented firing subatomic particles: particles called beta.
Thus all living things actually are radioactive, although few, that is because it has a carbon-14. Yes, including you and me, we are all radioactive. People with a weight of 68 kg contains about a million billion atoms of carbon-14 that fired a 200 000 beta particles every minute!
Since the discovery by a professor of chemistry University of Chicago, Willard F. Libby (1908-1980) around 1950s (he received the Nobel Prize for the discovery in 1960), radiocarbon dating techniques have become very powerful tools in archaeological research, oceanography, and several other disciplines.
For radiocarbon dating techniques to tell the age of an object, that object must contain organic carbon, namely carbon which had been part of the body of plants or animals. Radiocarbon dating methods tell us how long ago the plant or animal life, or more precisely, how long ago the plant or animal dies.
Radiocarbon test can be conducted on materials such as wood, bone, charcoal from the hearth of ancient camp or cave, or even a linen cloth used to wrap mummies, because the linen cloth made from flax plant fibers.
Carbon is a chemical element that was conceived by every living creature in the form of various biochemical substances, in proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, hormones, enzymes, etc.. Indeed, the study of chemistry of carbon-based chemicals called "organic chemistry" because once people believe that the only place for these chemicals are living creatures.
Now, people know that we can make all kinds of carbon-based organic chemicals from petroleum without having to take of plant or animal.
However, carbon in living things differ in one important case of carbon in the materials are not living things such as coal, petroleum, and minerals. Carbon "live" carbon atmospheres containing small amounts of certain types called carbon-14, while the carbon "dead" only contain atoms of carbon-12 and carbon-13.
The three kinds of different carbon atoms are called isotopes of carbon, they all behave the same chemically, but have a different weight, or more precisely, have different masses.
What is unique about the carbon-14, in addition to its mass, is because they are radioactive. Namely, they are unstable and tend to become weak, fragmented firing subatomic particles: particles called beta.
Thus all living things actually are radioactive, although few, that is because it has a carbon-14. Yes, including you and me, we are all radioactive. People with a weight of 68 kg contains about a million billion atoms of carbon-14 that fired a 200 000 beta particles every minute!
What is radiocarbon dating technique can be used to find out what age?
Know Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
Hydrogen peroxide with a chemical formula H2O2 was found by Louis Jacques Thenard in the year 1818. This compound is an inorganic chemical that has powerful oxidizing properties. Raw material of hydrogen peroxide is hydrogen gas (H2) and oxygen gas (O2). The technology is widely used in the auto industry is the hydrogen peroxide oxidation of anthraquinone.
H2O2 is colorless, odorless typical slightly acidic, and dissolves well in water. Under normal conditions (ambient conditions), hydrogen peroxide is very stable with decomposition rate of approximately less than 1% per year.
The majority of the use of hydrogen peroxide is to utilize and manipulate the decomposition reaction, which essentially produces oxygen. In the production phase hydrogen peroxide, chemical stabilizer ingredient is usually added in order to inhibit the rate of decomposition.
Including the decomposition that occurs during the hydrogen peroxide product in storage. In addition to producing oxygen, hydrogen peroxide decomposition reaction also produces water (H2O) and heat. Exothermic decomposition reaction that occurs is as follows:
H2O2 -> H2O + 1/2O2 + 23:45 kcal / mol
Factors that affect hydrogen peroxide decomposition reaction is:
1. Certain organic materials, such as alcohol and gasoline
2. Catalysts, such as Pd, Fe, Cu, Ni, Cr, Pb, Mn
3. Temperature, hydrogen peroxide decomposition reaction rate increased by 2.2 x every increase of 10 ° C (in the temperature range 20-100oC)
4. Container is an uneven surface (active surface)
5. Suspended solids, like dust particles or other impurities
6. The higher the pH (more alkaline) the higher the rate of decomposition
7. Radiation, especially radiation from the light with short wavelengths
Hydrogen peroxide can be used as a bleaching agent or bleaching agent in pulp, paper and textiles. These compounds are also commonly used in wastewater treatment processes, chemical industry, the manufacture of detergents, food and beverage, medical, and electronics industries (manufacture of PCBs).
One of the benefits of hydrogen peroxide compared with the other oxidant is its environmentally friendly because they do not leave harmful residues. Oksidatornya strength also can be adjusted as needed.
For example in the pulp and paper industry, the use of hydrogen peroxide is usually combined with NaOH or caustic soda. The more alkaline, then the hydrogen peroxide decomposition rate even higher. Hydrogen peroxide industry needs will continue to increase from year to year.
Although currently in Indonesia already have several factories producing hydrogen peroxide as PT Peroxide Indonesia Pratama, PT Degussa Peroxide Indonesia, and PT Inti Samator Peroxide, but domestic demand still remain to be imported.
H2O2 is colorless, odorless typical slightly acidic, and dissolves well in water. Under normal conditions (ambient conditions), hydrogen peroxide is very stable with decomposition rate of approximately less than 1% per year.
The majority of the use of hydrogen peroxide is to utilize and manipulate the decomposition reaction, which essentially produces oxygen. In the production phase hydrogen peroxide, chemical stabilizer ingredient is usually added in order to inhibit the rate of decomposition.
Including the decomposition that occurs during the hydrogen peroxide product in storage. In addition to producing oxygen, hydrogen peroxide decomposition reaction also produces water (H2O) and heat. Exothermic decomposition reaction that occurs is as follows:
H2O2 -> H2O + 1/2O2 + 23:45 kcal / mol
Factors that affect hydrogen peroxide decomposition reaction is:
1. Certain organic materials, such as alcohol and gasoline
2. Catalysts, such as Pd, Fe, Cu, Ni, Cr, Pb, Mn
3. Temperature, hydrogen peroxide decomposition reaction rate increased by 2.2 x every increase of 10 ° C (in the temperature range 20-100oC)
4. Container is an uneven surface (active surface)
5. Suspended solids, like dust particles or other impurities
6. The higher the pH (more alkaline) the higher the rate of decomposition
7. Radiation, especially radiation from the light with short wavelengths
Hydrogen peroxide can be used as a bleaching agent or bleaching agent in pulp, paper and textiles. These compounds are also commonly used in wastewater treatment processes, chemical industry, the manufacture of detergents, food and beverage, medical, and electronics industries (manufacture of PCBs).
One of the benefits of hydrogen peroxide compared with the other oxidant is its environmentally friendly because they do not leave harmful residues. Oksidatornya strength also can be adjusted as needed.
For example in the pulp and paper industry, the use of hydrogen peroxide is usually combined with NaOH or caustic soda. The more alkaline, then the hydrogen peroxide decomposition rate even higher. Hydrogen peroxide industry needs will continue to increase from year to year.
Although currently in Indonesia already have several factories producing hydrogen peroxide as PT Peroxide Indonesia Pratama, PT Degussa Peroxide Indonesia, and PT Inti Samator Peroxide, but domestic demand still remain to be imported.
Know Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
Working Power of Detergents
As the other cleaning materials, detergents is the fruit of technological advances that make use of the chemical byproduct of petroleum refining, combined with other chemicals such as phosphate, silicate, dye, and fragrance ingredients.
circa 1960's, early-generation detergent appeared using surface activating chemicals (surfactants) Alkyl Benzene Sulfonate (ABS) which is able to produce foam. However, due to the difficult nature of the ABS is broken down by microorganisms in the soil surface, eventually replaced with a compound of Linear Alkyl Sulfonate (LAS) are believed to be relatively more familiar with the environment.
In many countries around the world use has been banned and replaced ABS with LAS. While in Indonesia, the rules regarding the prohibition of the use of ABS is still outstanding. Some of the reasons is the use of ABS in detergent products, among others, for their low cost, stability in the form of cream / pasta and abundant foam.
The use of soap as a cleaning agent diluted with water in mountainous areas or swamp the former residential areas often do not produce foam. This is because the nature of soap that will not produce foam when dissolved in hard water (water containing certain metals or lime). However, the use of detergent with water that is hard, will still produce an abundant foam.
Soap or detergent dissolved in water in the washing process, will form the emulsion with dirt that will be wasted when flushing. But there are mistaken opinion that the more abundant foam will make laundry soap water be cleaner.
Foam with a large surface area can indeed absorb dirt dust, but the presence of surfactant, the cleaning can be performed without the need for foam.
Deliberately formed opinion that the foam showed abundant labor resources detergent is misleading. So, the washing process does not depend on whether or not the foam or less and the number of foam produced.
The ability of these detergent cleaning power can be increased if the laundry is heated because of the power of enzymes and bleach will be effective. However, washing with hot water will cause color to fade clothing. So for colored clothes, you should not use the water warm / hot.
Use of detergents are also often cause new problems, especially for users who have a sensitive nature. Users detergents may experience skin irritation, skin rashes, or skin becomes even more heat after using detergent.
circa 1960's, early-generation detergent appeared using surface activating chemicals (surfactants) Alkyl Benzene Sulfonate (ABS) which is able to produce foam. However, due to the difficult nature of the ABS is broken down by microorganisms in the soil surface, eventually replaced with a compound of Linear Alkyl Sulfonate (LAS) are believed to be relatively more familiar with the environment.
In many countries around the world use has been banned and replaced ABS with LAS. While in Indonesia, the rules regarding the prohibition of the use of ABS is still outstanding. Some of the reasons is the use of ABS in detergent products, among others, for their low cost, stability in the form of cream / pasta and abundant foam.
The use of soap as a cleaning agent diluted with water in mountainous areas or swamp the former residential areas often do not produce foam. This is because the nature of soap that will not produce foam when dissolved in hard water (water containing certain metals or lime). However, the use of detergent with water that is hard, will still produce an abundant foam.
Soap or detergent dissolved in water in the washing process, will form the emulsion with dirt that will be wasted when flushing. But there are mistaken opinion that the more abundant foam will make laundry soap water be cleaner.
Foam with a large surface area can indeed absorb dirt dust, but the presence of surfactant, the cleaning can be performed without the need for foam.
Deliberately formed opinion that the foam showed abundant labor resources detergent is misleading. So, the washing process does not depend on whether or not the foam or less and the number of foam produced.
The ability of these detergent cleaning power can be increased if the laundry is heated because of the power of enzymes and bleach will be effective. However, washing with hot water will cause color to fade clothing. So for colored clothes, you should not use the water warm / hot.
Use of detergents are also often cause new problems, especially for users who have a sensitive nature. Users detergents may experience skin irritation, skin rashes, or skin becomes even more heat after using detergent.
Working Power of Detergents
Metallic Mercury Toxic Effects
Mercury is denoted by Hg, Hydragyrum acronym meaning liquid silver. Mercury is one metal element which is in group II B in the periodic system, with atomic number 80 and mass number of 200.59. Mercury produced naturally derived from ore processing, Cinabar, with oxygen (Palar, 1994).
The resulting mercury was used in the synthesis of inorganic compounds and organic compounds that contain mercury. In everyday life, mercury is in three basic forms, namely: metallic mercury, inorganic mercury and organic mercury
Metallic mercury is also known as the element mercury (mercury-element), a metallic form of mercury. This silver-colored metal. This type of mercury used in laboratory tools such as mercury thermometers, thermostats, spignometer, barometers and other. In general, metallic mercury has the following characteristics, Tangible liquid at room temperature (250C) with freezing point (-390C). Is the most volatile metals. It has a very low electrical resistance, so that is used as a good conductor of electricity. Can form alloys with other metals (also called amalgams)
Metallic mercury is used widely in industries, such as a cathode in the electrolysis of sodium chloride to produce kautik soda (NaOH) and chlorine gas. The metal is also used in the process of extraction of precious metals, especially gold extraction from ore, used also as a catalyst in the chemical industry as well as an anti-dull in the paint.
Metallic mercury can enter the human body through the respiratory tract. Broken mercury thermometer is one such example. When the thermometer breaks, most of the mercury evaporates into the air. Metallic mercury can be inhaled by humans who are nearby.
Eighty percent (80%) of mercury vapor is inhaled, absorbed by the lung alveoli. This metallic mercury into the human circulatory system with the aid of hydrogen peroxide and metallic mercury is converted into inorganic mercury.
The use of metallic mercury and the other most common is the dental amalgam. Dental amalgam contains 50% of the element mercury, 35% silver, 9% tin 6% copper and zinc. Amalgam fillings are used as dental cavities.
Amalgam fillings release microscopic particles and mercury vapor. Activities chew and drink hot foods and drinks that increase the frequency of loss of dental fillings. Mercury vapor will be absorbed by the roots of teeth, mucous membranes of the mouth and gums, and swallowed, then up to the esophagus and gastrointestinal tract.
Metallic mercury in the gastrointestinal tract will be converted to mercury sulfide and excreted through feces. Researchers from the University Of Calgari reported that 10% of mercury derived from amalgam eventually accumulate in the organs of the body (McCandless, 2003)
Metallic mercury is fat soluble and distributed throughout the body. Metallic mercury can penetrate the Blood-Brain barrier (B3) or the placenta barrier. Both are membrane covering the brain or fetus from the harmful compounds. Once through the Blood-Brain barrier, metallic mercury will accumulate in the brain. While the mercury through the placenta barrier which will damage the growth and development of the fetus.
Metallic Mercury Toxic Effects
The resulting mercury was used in the synthesis of inorganic compounds and organic compounds that contain mercury. In everyday life, mercury is in three basic forms, namely: metallic mercury, inorganic mercury and organic mercury
Metallic mercury is also known as the element mercury (mercury-element), a metallic form of mercury. This silver-colored metal. This type of mercury used in laboratory tools such as mercury thermometers, thermostats, spignometer, barometers and other. In general, metallic mercury has the following characteristics, Tangible liquid at room temperature (250C) with freezing point (-390C). Is the most volatile metals. It has a very low electrical resistance, so that is used as a good conductor of electricity. Can form alloys with other metals (also called amalgams)
Metallic mercury is used widely in industries, such as a cathode in the electrolysis of sodium chloride to produce kautik soda (NaOH) and chlorine gas. The metal is also used in the process of extraction of precious metals, especially gold extraction from ore, used also as a catalyst in the chemical industry as well as an anti-dull in the paint.
Metallic mercury can enter the human body through the respiratory tract. Broken mercury thermometer is one such example. When the thermometer breaks, most of the mercury evaporates into the air. Metallic mercury can be inhaled by humans who are nearby.
Eighty percent (80%) of mercury vapor is inhaled, absorbed by the lung alveoli. This metallic mercury into the human circulatory system with the aid of hydrogen peroxide and metallic mercury is converted into inorganic mercury.
The use of metallic mercury and the other most common is the dental amalgam. Dental amalgam contains 50% of the element mercury, 35% silver, 9% tin 6% copper and zinc. Amalgam fillings are used as dental cavities.
Amalgam fillings release microscopic particles and mercury vapor. Activities chew and drink hot foods and drinks that increase the frequency of loss of dental fillings. Mercury vapor will be absorbed by the roots of teeth, mucous membranes of the mouth and gums, and swallowed, then up to the esophagus and gastrointestinal tract.
Metallic mercury in the gastrointestinal tract will be converted to mercury sulfide and excreted through feces. Researchers from the University Of Calgari reported that 10% of mercury derived from amalgam eventually accumulate in the organs of the body (McCandless, 2003)
Metallic mercury is fat soluble and distributed throughout the body. Metallic mercury can penetrate the Blood-Brain barrier (B3) or the placenta barrier. Both are membrane covering the brain or fetus from the harmful compounds. Once through the Blood-Brain barrier, metallic mercury will accumulate in the brain. While the mercury through the placenta barrier which will damage the growth and development of the fetus.
Metallic Mercury Toxic Effects
New sources of sugar
In general, the condition of the national sugar industry, at least, has three main problems. First, the low purchasing price of sugar for the production of farmers due to low world market sugar prices. Second, the low productivity of the sugar mills and many are not efficient.
Third, the development of the national sugar industry continues to slump. Sugar production in Indonesia has decreased annually by 2.14% or 44,328.695 tons. While the development of sugar consumption in Indonesia increased from the year 1991/1992 up to the year 2000/2001 amounted to 2.03% or 61,186 tons. Both these factors lead to increase sugar imports trend in Indonesia per year by 11.94% or 116,535.839 tons.
The main source of sugar in Indonesia today are sugarcane (Saccharum officinale), which is now declining productivity caused by climate change in Indonesia that is uncertain. If only rely on the production of sugar from sugarcane, the decline in sugar production will continue to fall and imports of sugar will continue to rise. Thus, the necessary sources other than cane sugar production that can meet the challenges and problems perikliman industrial production situation in Indonesia today.
Caryota mythic Lour. (Fish-tail palm) have a very high content of sucrose in water the flowers, that is equal to 83.5%. Since only use the interest only, Caryota mythic can be managed as plantation crops, like palm oil, which can be harvested continuously over time reproductive tree.
Our hypothesis is flower water (juice) on the mythic Caryota Lour. can be used as an alternative source of sugar cane.
The process to obtain pure sucrose from the tree flower water can be done through a process of water extraction rates, the deposition of dirt, water purification & separation of the sugar content of other compounds, crystallization and subsequent storage to be processed into pure sugar crystals.
The successful introduction of sugar sources that this one will be a new discourse in the development of bio-industry nationwide as well as address challenges need one of the most important food commodity in Indonesia and the world.
Third, the development of the national sugar industry continues to slump. Sugar production in Indonesia has decreased annually by 2.14% or 44,328.695 tons. While the development of sugar consumption in Indonesia increased from the year 1991/1992 up to the year 2000/2001 amounted to 2.03% or 61,186 tons. Both these factors lead to increase sugar imports trend in Indonesia per year by 11.94% or 116,535.839 tons.
The main source of sugar in Indonesia today are sugarcane (Saccharum officinale), which is now declining productivity caused by climate change in Indonesia that is uncertain. If only rely on the production of sugar from sugarcane, the decline in sugar production will continue to fall and imports of sugar will continue to rise. Thus, the necessary sources other than cane sugar production that can meet the challenges and problems perikliman industrial production situation in Indonesia today.
Caryota mythic Lour. (Fish-tail palm) have a very high content of sucrose in water the flowers, that is equal to 83.5%. Since only use the interest only, Caryota mythic can be managed as plantation crops, like palm oil, which can be harvested continuously over time reproductive tree.
Our hypothesis is flower water (juice) on the mythic Caryota Lour. can be used as an alternative source of sugar cane.
The process to obtain pure sucrose from the tree flower water can be done through a process of water extraction rates, the deposition of dirt, water purification & separation of the sugar content of other compounds, crystallization and subsequent storage to be processed into pure sugar crystals.
The successful introduction of sugar sources that this one will be a new discourse in the development of bio-industry nationwide as well as address challenges need one of the most important food commodity in Indonesia and the world.
New sources of sugar
The C-Value Paradox
ethics you examine the genomes of various species, you must have thought that a simple organism has a genome that is smaller than the more complex organisms.
Because, you assume that the simpler organisms require less genes than the more complex organisms. This assumption is true, but estimates that the simpler organisms have smaller genomes does not fit the facts.
Take for instance the comparison between humans and amoeba. Humans certainly have more genes than the amoeba, because humans are multicellular organisms that is far more complex than amoeba. It is true, but whether humans also have larger genomes than the amoeba? No.
In fact, humans have 3.3 billion base pairs in the genome, whereas had 200 billion amoeba genome in the genome, which is almost 70 times more than humans! So why the genomes of organisms that are much simpler to have the genome of such magnitude?
Similarly, another example, namely Bony fish and japanese puffer fish, two fish species are species that still have close kinship. Japanese puffer fish has 0.5 billion base pairs in its genome while Bony fish has 300 billion base pairs in its genome, 600 times more than the japanese puffer fish! Why does this happen? What good is excess DNA in the genome of these organisms?
This phenomenon is referred to as the C-Value Paradox, where C refers to the quantity of DNA in the genome of the organism. Excess DNA is not reflecting komplektisitas genetic component, but only in the form of DNA that has no function or encode a functional product in the organism in question.
Most of the DNA is a repetitive segment which consists of transposons and retrotransposons. Transposons or transposable elements also called a segment of DNA that can menginsersikan himself anywhere in the genome either by copying itself through replicative transposition or catalyze the transfer of segments of itself through the mechanism of conservative transposition.
The second mechanism is done by using a transposon transposase enzyme that dikodenya and without going through a phase of RNA. While retrotransposon or retrotransposable elements make the shift or insertion through a phase of RNA.
So in addition to the transcript coding for a reverse trankriptase himself, he also serves as a template to form cDNA and then inserted at certain places in the genome.
In humans, there are two types of retrotransposon, namely Sines (Short interspersed Nuclear Elements) and Lines (Long interspersed Nuclear Elements). LINES 1-6 kbp in length while Sines length: 100 bp-1 kbp. Lines, Sines and other transposons arrange 45% of the total genome of us!
Twenty percent of the total genome is LINES and 13% of the total genome is Sines. One type is called a brother "LINES L1 segments contained in the introns 79% of human genes. These DNA segments are often referred to as junk DNA. Because he did not have any function other than "wishes" to copy itself as much as possible in order to keep survive.
So, the big difference did not reflect the genome of each organism komplektisitas genetic differences, but rather to differences in the ability of each organism to remove or suppress tranposisi of berbagaimacam above junk DNA and other repetitive DNA segments. Or it may be that this repetitive DNA segment actually has a specific function in the genome that could not be detected at this time.
Because, you assume that the simpler organisms require less genes than the more complex organisms. This assumption is true, but estimates that the simpler organisms have smaller genomes does not fit the facts.
Take for instance the comparison between humans and amoeba. Humans certainly have more genes than the amoeba, because humans are multicellular organisms that is far more complex than amoeba. It is true, but whether humans also have larger genomes than the amoeba? No.
In fact, humans have 3.3 billion base pairs in the genome, whereas had 200 billion amoeba genome in the genome, which is almost 70 times more than humans! So why the genomes of organisms that are much simpler to have the genome of such magnitude?
Similarly, another example, namely Bony fish and japanese puffer fish, two fish species are species that still have close kinship. Japanese puffer fish has 0.5 billion base pairs in its genome while Bony fish has 300 billion base pairs in its genome, 600 times more than the japanese puffer fish! Why does this happen? What good is excess DNA in the genome of these organisms?
This phenomenon is referred to as the C-Value Paradox, where C refers to the quantity of DNA in the genome of the organism. Excess DNA is not reflecting komplektisitas genetic component, but only in the form of DNA that has no function or encode a functional product in the organism in question.
Most of the DNA is a repetitive segment which consists of transposons and retrotransposons. Transposons or transposable elements also called a segment of DNA that can menginsersikan himself anywhere in the genome either by copying itself through replicative transposition or catalyze the transfer of segments of itself through the mechanism of conservative transposition.
The second mechanism is done by using a transposon transposase enzyme that dikodenya and without going through a phase of RNA. While retrotransposon or retrotransposable elements make the shift or insertion through a phase of RNA.
So in addition to the transcript coding for a reverse trankriptase himself, he also serves as a template to form cDNA and then inserted at certain places in the genome.
In humans, there are two types of retrotransposon, namely Sines (Short interspersed Nuclear Elements) and Lines (Long interspersed Nuclear Elements). LINES 1-6 kbp in length while Sines length: 100 bp-1 kbp. Lines, Sines and other transposons arrange 45% of the total genome of us!
Twenty percent of the total genome is LINES and 13% of the total genome is Sines. One type is called a brother "LINES L1 segments contained in the introns 79% of human genes. These DNA segments are often referred to as junk DNA. Because he did not have any function other than "wishes" to copy itself as much as possible in order to keep survive.
So, the big difference did not reflect the genome of each organism komplektisitas genetic differences, but rather to differences in the ability of each organism to remove or suppress tranposisi of berbagaimacam above junk DNA and other repetitive DNA segments. Or it may be that this repetitive DNA segment actually has a specific function in the genome that could not be detected at this time.
The C-Value Paradox
Ethanol fermentation by Saccharomyces cerevisiae: The Crabtree Effect
Saccharomyces cerevisiae has long been used in industrial alcohol and alcoholic beverages because it has the ability to ferment glucose into ethanol. The interesting thing is the process of ethanol on yeast fermentation takes place in aerobic conditions.According to Pasteur, the presence of oxygen will inhibit the fermentation pathway in the yeast cell so that there is a carbon source to be used via the respiratory route. This phenomenon is often referred to as the Pasteur effect (Walker 1998). In cells of prokaryotes and eukaryotes, many found the Pasteur effect, one example is lactic acid fermentation by human muscle cells when deprived of oxygen.
Based on this phenomenon, should the production of ethanol by yeasts occurs in anaerobic conditions. But it turns out, the Pasteur effect in yeast cells was observed in cells that had entered stationary phase (resting), while the production of alcohol occurs when cells are in growth phase (log phase) (Alexander & Jeffries 1990). This makes the Pasteur effect is not a phenomenon that allegedly occurred during the production of ethanol by Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Herbert Crabtree in 1929 discovered another phenomenon that occurs in tumor cells where the cell is the dominant fermentation pathway occur even in aerobic conditions (Alexander & Jeffries 1990).
In 1948, Swanson and Clifton first to show that this phenomenon occurs in Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells growing and producing ethanol as a fermentation product during a certain amount of glucose contained in the growth medium (Alexander & Jeffries 1990).
This phenomenon was originally called the contre-Pasteur effect before the term used Crabtree effect (de Dekken 1966). Crabtree effect in yeast can be observed when the growth medium containing glucose in concentrations tinggai (above 5 mM) (Walker 1998). Based on the de Dekken (1966),
Crabtree effect does not occur in all yeasts, but only on a few species only, among others Saccahromyces cerevisiae, S. chevalieri, S. italicus, S. oviformis, S. pasteurianus, S. turbidans, S. calsbergensis, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Debaryomyces globosus, Bretanomyces lambicus, Torulopsis dattila, T. glabrata, and T. colliculosa.
There are three mechanisms that explain the Crabtree effect: 1. catabolite repression; 2. catabolite inactivation, and 3. respiration capacity is limited.
Catabolite repression occurs when glucose, or the initial product of glucose metabolism, suppress the synthesis of various enzymes of respiration (Fietcher et al. 1981). But the detailed mechanisms, such as the compound that gives a signal to suppress the synthesis of these, is still unclear (Walker 1998).
The initial idea catabolite repression triggered by von Meyenberg in 1969 (Alexander & Jeffries 1990) that fosters S. cerevisiae in a medium containing glucose with the method continues culture. The results showed that when low cell concentrations, the metabolic pathways used are respiration, whereas when the cell concentration has reached a critical number, ethanol fermentation occurs.
From these results expected at low cell concentrations, enzymes of respiration was still sufficient to perform respiration path, but when the cell concentration increases, the concentration of enzyme is not increased because the suppressed synthesis by glucose, so the path respiration stopped and replaced by fermentation.
In addition to the repression of enzyme synthesis, a high concentration of sugar will also disrupt the structure of yeast mitochondria, for example loss of membrane in and kristae. However, these structures will be back to normal when respiration path replaces ethanol fermentation (Walker 1998). Changes in the structure will inhibit the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation takes place in mitochondria.
Catabolite inactivation occurs when glucose disable a key enzyme in the respiratory track, such as fructose 1,6-bifosfatase (FBPase). Inactivation occurs primarily through phosphorylation of the enzyme, followed by protein digestion enzymes in the vacuole (Walker 1998).
The mechanism of inactivation of FBPase in S. cerevisiae begins with the increased concentration of cAMP and FBPase in cells by glucose. The increase in both molecules will trigger cAMP-dependent protein kinase for phosphorylation of FBPase (Francois et al. 1984).
The last mechanism explains the Crabtree effect in yeast is the limited capacity of yeast respiration proposed by Bardford & Hall (1979). Both researchers are conducting research that is similar to von
Meyenberg, but found no evidence of catabolite repression by glucose. Therefore, they argue that the yeast-fermenting yeast that is able to perform aerobic respiration has limited capacity. When present in high concentrations of glucose, glycolysis would run quickly so as to produce a high amount of pyruvat.
But the limitations of these yeasts to use pyruvat in line next respiration (Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation) causes the remaining pyruvat Fermentative revamped into ethanol.
In contrast, the yeast fermentation that is not doing aerobic respiration is considered to have an unlimited capacity to be able to use all pyruvat generated from glycolysis, although the amount of glucose in the medium high (Alexander & Jeffries 1990).
Ethanol fermentation by Saccharomyces cerevisiae: The Crabtree Effect
Know Amylomyces rouxii
Indonesia and the Asian countries known for food that is produced through fermentation of solid substrate containing starch in large quantities. Examples are cassava and tape sticky tape from Indonesia, chiu-Niang from China, wine from the tape sticky rice from Vietnam, and others. The fermentation process, using two groups of microorganisms that have different roles, the first group will break down starch into glucose, while the second group will convert glucose into ethanol. Microorganisms are often encountered and is a member of the first group is Amylomyces rouxii (Nout 2007).
A. rouxii is the sole member of the genus Amylomyces. Genus and species was first described by Clamette in 1892.
A. Characteristics favorable rouxii in solid substrate fermentation process containing starch is the ability of these fungi to produce enzymes amyloglucosidase, its ability to grow on the substrate raw (uncooked), and inability to sporulating (Nout 2007).
Amyloglucosidase (EC 3.2.1.3), or also commonly known as amylase, is an enzyme that functions break the bond of alpha-1, 4 glycoside on polysaccharide chains. The end result of hydrolysis are dextrins, oligosaccharides, maltose and D-glucose. The process known as saccharification.
One study conducted by Dung et al. (2006) showed that A. rouxii is able to change the 25% starch into glucose after incubation for three days, and to produce amyloglucosidase up to 0.43 U / g.
Although much research on A. rouxii has been done, but the mold is still a mystery, among others, is the natural habitat of A. rouxii, and its evolution. Use of yeast wide tape in Indonesian society the opportunity wide variety A. rouxii which can be sampled in solving the mystery.
Bibliography
Dung, N.T.P., F.M. Rombouts & M.J.R. Nout. 2006. Functionality of selected strains of molds and yeasts from Vietnamese rice wine starters. Food Microbiology 23: 331-340.
Ellis, J.J., L.J. Rhodes & C.W. Hasseltine. 1976. The Genus Amylomyces. Mycologia, 68 (1): 131-143.
Nout, R.M.J. 2007. The colonizing fungus as a food provider. In. Dijksterhuis, J. & R.A. Samson. 2007. Food mycology: A multifaceted approach to fungi and food. CRC Press, Newark: 335-352.
Know Amylomyces rouxii
What causes a sonic boom?
Many do not make sense about the story about sonic booms or explosions. Columbia Encyclopedia 5th edition (1993) says, "An object like an airplane, for example, produce sounds. When the sound of it reaches or exceeds the speed of sound, the object is caught up with the noise itself. "
On the other hand, many people believe there is something called "sound barrier" or the sound barrier, also that when the plane flew past him he issued a loud bang, as if he had hit an invisible glass wall. It is also wrong.
Everyone must tergiring to such thinking by the use of the term "obstacle" or barrier. This term was never meant to imply physical obstacles in the sky there, but only that the speed of sound to present obstacles to the development of faster aircraft lebh.
The definition of sound barrier is a barrier in aeronautics design context, not a physical obstacle. However, when the plane "bypass" the sound barrier, it is clear there are a number of physical stress experienced by the aircraft due to the shock wave (shockwave).
Real obstacle to supersonic flight posed by the speed of sound itself. (And of course supersonic means faster than the speed of sound, while the ultrasonic refers to the sound with higher frequencies than humans can hear.) In fact a lot of unique things happen when the object approached the speed of sound in air.
The plane flew through the air with a speed of several hundred km / hour. The speed is low enough this allows air molecules to stay relaxed when it should be brushed to give way; the situation is more or less like when someone is walking slowly lifted the crowd.
But when the speed of the aircraft to be proportional to the speed of the molecules, the molecules could not escape, they piled on the edges of the front of the plane and driven with him.
Rapid buildup of pressurized air is produced "air shocks" or shock waves, which form the explosion. The sound waves radiate in all directions and can be heard sebaga an explosion by the people down there.
What does all mentioned with the speed of sound? Well, the sound is nothing but a series of air compression and expansion.
If the air molecules around a certain speed, then there is a limit to how fast air can be compressed and dimuaikan, because molecules can not be compressed and dimuaikan faster than the motion of each against the other. That is why the speed of air molecules put limits on how fast sound can travel it.
The sound will propagate faster in warm weather ketimabng in cool air and the sound is also progress faster in dense high-pressure air.
That's why supersonic aircraft operate best at very high altitude cold areas, because they do not need to be going too fast to exceed the speed of sound. At an altitude of 9 km above sea level, the air cool and thin enough so that the sound speed is only 1100 km / hour.
On the other hand, many people believe there is something called "sound barrier" or the sound barrier, also that when the plane flew past him he issued a loud bang, as if he had hit an invisible glass wall. It is also wrong.
Everyone must tergiring to such thinking by the use of the term "obstacle" or barrier. This term was never meant to imply physical obstacles in the sky there, but only that the speed of sound to present obstacles to the development of faster aircraft lebh.
The definition of sound barrier is a barrier in aeronautics design context, not a physical obstacle. However, when the plane "bypass" the sound barrier, it is clear there are a number of physical stress experienced by the aircraft due to the shock wave (shockwave).
Real obstacle to supersonic flight posed by the speed of sound itself. (And of course supersonic means faster than the speed of sound, while the ultrasonic refers to the sound with higher frequencies than humans can hear.) In fact a lot of unique things happen when the object approached the speed of sound in air.
The plane flew through the air with a speed of several hundred km / hour. The speed is low enough this allows air molecules to stay relaxed when it should be brushed to give way; the situation is more or less like when someone is walking slowly lifted the crowd.
But when the speed of the aircraft to be proportional to the speed of the molecules, the molecules could not escape, they piled on the edges of the front of the plane and driven with him.
Rapid buildup of pressurized air is produced "air shocks" or shock waves, which form the explosion. The sound waves radiate in all directions and can be heard sebaga an explosion by the people down there.
What does all mentioned with the speed of sound? Well, the sound is nothing but a series of air compression and expansion.
If the air molecules around a certain speed, then there is a limit to how fast air can be compressed and dimuaikan, because molecules can not be compressed and dimuaikan faster than the motion of each against the other. That is why the speed of air molecules put limits on how fast sound can travel it.
The sound will propagate faster in warm weather ketimabng in cool air and the sound is also progress faster in dense high-pressure air.
That's why supersonic aircraft operate best at very high altitude cold areas, because they do not need to be going too fast to exceed the speed of sound. At an altitude of 9 km above sea level, the air cool and thin enough so that the sound speed is only 1100 km / hour.
What causes a sonic boom?